Topic 3; Heat

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Thermometers
Mercury thermometer
The physical quantity that is used to determine the temperature of a body by
means of a mercury thermometer is the length of the thread mercury, or to be
more exact, the volume of mercury. When the temperature increases, the
volume of the mercury increases too.
The sensitivity of a mercury thermometer can be increased by:
 reducing the diameter of the capillary tube
 increasing the size of the bulb.
 using a thinner-walled glass bulb.
Normally, mercury is used in a thermometer because it:
 Expands uniformly.
 has a higher boiling limit.
 is opaque and therefore it is easier to read off the temperature.
 is a good conductor of heat.
 does not stick to the glass.
One weakness of the mercury thermometer in the measurement of an accurate temperature is that the
glass of the capillary tube also expands when the temperature expands.
In addition to that, it is extremely dangerous if the glass tube breaks because mercury is very poisonous.
Mercury thermometer is suitable to measure temperature between -30 degree Celsius to 300 degree
Celsius.

Resistance thermometer
Thermometers which use liquids inside the glass are
not suitable to be used for measuring a wide range
of temperature. e.g temperature ranging from -250
degree celcius to about 700 degree Celsius. A
suitable thermometer which is used for the above
range of temperatures is a resistance thermometer.
A resistance thermometer uses the property of the
change in the platinum wire with a change in
temperature. The current flowing in the wire
experiences more resistance when the wire becomes
hot. The change in the resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the change in temperature. A
milliammeter can and should be calibrated beforehand to measure the temperature. Its calibration of the
melting limit of water and the boiling point of water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere is able to convert the
milliameter scale to a temperature scale in degree Celsius. Therefore, tis thermometer is very accurate.
Thermocouple thermometer
An electromotive force (e.m.f) will be produced in a thermocouple when there is a
temperature difference between the hot junction and the cold junction. Once this
happens, a current will flow. This thermometer is very sensitive and responds
towards slight change in temperature. Since the physical quantity which is used to
measure the temperature is the e.m.f, this thermometer can be connected to other
electrical circuits to control or record the surrounding temperature. A thermocouple
thermometer is a very sensitive thermometer which is suitable for measuring
temperatures ranging from -250 degree celsius to 1600 degree celsius.

Calibration of Thermometers
The calibration of an instrument refers to the process of marking-up a scale on the instrument to be used
as measurement. To produce a scale on a thermometer, two fixed points must be determined first. Then
the two points must be the temperatures which can easily and correctly reproduce in any part of the
world. On the Celsius scale, the two fixed points are the ice point (0°C) and the steam/boiling point
(100°C). The ice point (0°C), or lower fixed point is the melting temperature of pure ice at standard
atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg). The steam point (100°C), or upper fixed point is the temperature of
steam at standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg). After obtaining, the highest point and the lowest
point. We divide the length between them to equal parts / scale.

Heat and Temperature

It must be noted that Temperature is NOT the same as Heat. Temperature is a measure of degree of
hotness of an object, is a base quantity, SI unit is kelvin and other units are degree Celsius and Fahrenheit.
It determines the direction of heat flow. Heat is a form of energy, is a derived quantity and SI unit is
Joule, J. (other unit is calorie, cal.) It is being transferred from a region of higher temperature to another
region of lower temperature.

Conversions
By referring the Celsius scale, we have the Kelvin scale, T = (θ + 273) K with T being the temperature at
the Kelvin θ being the temperature at the Celsius scale.

Heat Capacity (C)

The heat capacity, C, of a substance is the heat which is required to increase the temperature of the substance by
1K. The unit for heat capacity is J /K. For example, the heat capacity for 100 g of water is 420 J/K. This means that
420 J of heat energy is required to raise the temperature of 100 g water by 1K. To increase temperature by 2°C,
840 J are needed and so on. Different substance, materials or body has different specific heat capacity. If a body
absorbs a lot of heat but there is only a slight increase in temperature, then the body is said to posses a large heat
capacity. On the other hand, if a body absorbs a little amount of heat but shows a big rise in temperature, then the
body is said to posses a small heat capacity. The relationship between heat capacity, C and specific heat capacity, c
is shown by the following equation:
C = mc
Specific Heat Capacity (c)
Specific heat capacity, c, of a body is the heat that is needed to increase the heat of a unit of mass or the substance
by 1°C or 1K. The unit of specific heat capacity is J kg-1°K-1. For example, the specific heat capacity of water is 4200
J kg-1K-1. This means that 4200J of heat is needed to increase the temperature of 1 Kg of water by 1°C. Therefore,
when a body of a mass m and specific heat capacity, c, absorbs a quantity of Heat, H, then its heat will increase by
θ.
Therefore, H = mc θ.
On the contrary, when the heat of a body falls by θ, the quantity of heat that disappears or lost is also H = mc θ.
The specific heat capacity is dependent upon the type of substances. Different substances have different specific
heat capacity. By knowing the specific heat capacity, we can determine the mass and also the change of
temperature of a body if we know the amount of heat that is transferred. Total heat transferred H = mc θ.
Generally, liquid has more specific heat capacity than solids. This means that liquids need more heat energy than
solids to show the same value of rise in temperature.

Specific Latent Heat

When ice melts, there is a change of phase from solid to liquid. The ice absorbs heat from the
surroundings. The heat energy absorbed by the ice does not cause the increase in temperature. The
energy absorbed is not transferred to the molecules of ice as kinetic energy. When a substance
experiences a change of phase, it absorbs heat energy without a change in temperature. The heat
absorbed is known as latent heat. Heat energy needs to be supplied to change a substance from solid to
liquid phase and from liquid to gaseous phase. When a solid melts, heat is absorbed but the temperature
remains constant. When a liquid is boiling, heat is also absorbed but the temperature remains constant.
From the principle of conservation of energy, we can infer that latent heat must be given out when a gas
condenses to become a liquid and when the liquid solidifies to the solid phase. These two processes also
occur at constant temperature. The four main changes of phase are melting, boiling, condensation and
solidification.

Application of Specific Heat capacity

Substances having a small specific heat capacity can be quickly heated up, it also experience a big change
in temperature even though only small amount of heat is supplied.

Substances having a small specific heat capacity, are very useful as material in cooking instruments such as
frying pans, pots, kettles and so on, because, they can be quickly heated up even when small amount of
heat is supplied.

Sensitive thermometers also must be made from materials with small specific heat capacity so that it can
detect and show a change of temperature rapidly and accurately.

Substances that have a high specific heat capacity is suitable as a material for constructing kettle handlers,
insulators and oven covers, because, a high amount of heat will cause only a small change in temperature
i.e. the material won't get hot too fast!

Heat storage instruments are very useful and they are usually made of substances with a high specific heat
capacity.

Water as a cooling agent acts excellent as a cooling agent in engines. Water is also used in houses in cold
climate countries because as it is heated up (boiled) it tends to retain heat and warm the house due to its
high specific heat capacity.