4.

1 Understanding Thermal Equilibrium

Thermometric Properties

Heat Temperature

Thermal equilibrium

Application

Thermometer
Oven Refrigerator

Types of thermometers Calibrations

Relationship between Temperature and Heat
1. Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of a body.
2. A hot body has a high temperature whereas a cold body has a low
temperature.
3. Heat is a form of energy being transferred from a hot body to a cold
body.
4. Heat and temperature are two different physical quantities.

Temperature Heat
The degree of hotness of a body A form of energy
Base quantity Derived quantity
Unit: Kelvin (K) or degree Celsius Unit: joule (J)
(°C)
Can be measured using a No specific measuring equipment
thermometer

Table 4.1 The difference between heat and temperature

Mechanism Thermal Equilibrium

Energy is transferred at a faster The hotter object cools down while

rate from the hotter object to the
colder object. Energy is also
transferred from the colder object
to the hotter one, but at a slower
rate. There is a net flow of energy
from the hotter object to the
colder object.
the colder object warms up. After
some time, energy is transferred at
the same rate between the two
objects. There is no net heat
transfer between the objects. The
two objects are said to be in
thermal equilibrium.
 Thermal Equilibrium

 When two objects are in thermal equilibrium, there

is no net flow of heat between them.
 Two objects in thermal equilibrium have the same
temperature.

 Microwave oven Refrigerator

An oven can maintain Fruits are normally kept
its temperature by the in refrigerator to
use of thermostat maintain their freshness
 Applications of Thermal Equilibrium

 Thermometer Cooling drinks

A doctor use a thermometer A hot drink can be
to measure the body cooled by adding a few
temperature of the patient. ice cubes to the drink

Liquid-in-glass Thermometer
The characteristic of  Be easily seen
the liquid used in  Expand and contract rapidly over a wide range of
liquid-in-glass temperature
thermometer  No stick to the glass walls of the capillary tube
How a liquid-in-glass  The bulb of the thermometer contains a fixed mass
thermometer of mercury. The volume of the mercury increases
works ? when it absorbs heat.
 The mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube.
The length of the mercury column in the capillary
tube indicates the magnitude of the temperature.
How can a  A temperature scale is obtained by choosing two
thermometer be temperatures, called the fixed point.
calibrated ?  Definition of ice point and steam point.

Fixed point Definition Value

Lower point: The temperature of 0°C
Ice point pure melting ice
Upper point: The temperature of 100°C
steam point steam from water
that is boiling under
standard
atmospheric
pressure
 When the two fixed points have been marked on the
stem of the thermometer, the range between them is

ᶱ divided equally into 100 divisions or degrees. The

thermometer now has a scale.

Explain the working When the thermometer is placed in contact with hot
principle of a water, heat is transferred from hot water to the
thermometer thermometer.
Thermal equilibrium between the thermometer and
hot water is reached when the net rate of heat transfer
is zero.
The thermometer and the water are at the same
temperature. At this point, the thermometer reading
shows the thermometer of the water.

What are  It is a good conductor of heat

characteristics of  It has a high boiling point, 357°c
mercury that makes  It expands uniformly when heated
it suitable as a  It is opaque (does not allow light to pass through)
liquid-in-glass and it can be seen easily.
thermometer ? Mercury freezes at a temperature of -39°C and it is
therefore not suitable for measuring temperatures
below this temperature, such at the north pole.
How to increase the  Thin capillary tube
sensitivity of a  A glass bulb with thinner wall
mercury  Large bulb
thermometer ?
 4.2 Understanding Specific Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity

Idea Increase in temperature

of material

Specific Heat Capacity

Q = mc

Determine the specific

heat capacity of
Application
aluminium
 Heat Capacity

The amount of heat required to change

its temperature by one degree

Concept of Heat Capacity

The total amount of heat in a body is affected by:

 The temperature of the body (heat

supplied to the body)
 The mass of the body
 The type of material
 Specific Heat Capacity

The amount of heat that must be supplied to

increase the temperature by 1 °C for a mass of 1 kg
of the substance
Specific heat capacity, c = Q SI unit: J kg °C

Q = heat absorbed / released, unit J

m= mass of the substance, unit kg
= change in temperature, unit °C

Quantity of heat absorbed

or lost by a substance Q = mc

Example:

What does specific heat of aluminium 900 j of heat needs to be supplied to 1

900 J kg °C mean ? kg of aluminium to produce a 1 °C
temperature increase.
What does specific heat of water 4 4 200 J of heat needs to be supplied to
200 J kg °C mean ? 1 kg of water to produce a 1 °C
temperature increase.

Physical meaning of specific heat capacity, c

 When two objects of equal mass are heated at equal rates, the object with
the smaller specific heat capacity will have a faster temperature.
 When two objects of equal mass are left to cool down, the temperature of
the object with smaller heat capacity will drop faster.

A substance with a small value of  Heats up and cools at a faster rate

specific heat capacity
A substance with a high value of
specific heat capacity
For example, metal like iron, steel,
copper and aluminium is used as
pots and pans because they can be
quickly heated up when there is
only small heat absorption.
 Sensitive to temperature changes
A thermometer has low specific
heat capacities so it enables heat
to be easily absorbed and released
even when small quantities of heat
are involved.
 Heats up and cools at slower rate.
Require more heat to raise its
temperature by a specific amount.
 Poor conductor of heat – handle of
pot
 Can absorb a great amount of heat
without a high increase in
temperature
For example, water acts a heat
reservoir as it can absorb a great
amount of heat before it boils. Water
is used as cooling agent in a car
radiator.
 Applications of Specific Heat Capacity

Cooking Pot

 Copper Base
 Low specific heat capacity. The pot becomes hot very quickly. This
enables quick cooking of the food in the pot.
 High density. The heavier base ensures that the pot is stable and
will not topple over easily.
 Wooden Handle
 Large specific heat capacity. The handle will not become too hot
when heat is absorbed.
 Poor conductor of heat.
 Alumni body
 Relatively low specific heat capacity. The pot becomes hot quickly.
 Low density so it will be lighter
 Does not react with the food in the pot.
Sea Breeze

 Land has a smaller specific heat capacity than sea. Faster increase in
temperature, ie; land is warmer than the sea
 Air above the land is heated up and rises.
 Cooler air from the sea moves from towards the land as sea breeze.

Land Breeze
  At night, heat is lost from the land and sea.
 Sea has a larger specific heat capacity so sea is warmer than land.
 Warmer air above the sea rises.
 Cooler air from the land moves towards the sea as land breeze.

The cooling system of a car engine

 Water has a high specific heat capacity and lower cost. So water can be a
useful a cooling agent.
 A water pump circulates the water.
 Heat produced by the engine is absorbed by the water that flows along the
space in engine walls.
 The hot water flows to the radiator where heat is lost to the cooler air that
flows through the cooling fins.
4.3 Understanding Specific Latent Heat

Specific Latent Heat

Specific latent heat Specific latent heat of

of fusion vaporisation

Q = mL Q = mL

melting boiling

Solid freezing Liquid condensation Gas

Application
 Latent Heat

The heat absorbed or the heat released at constant

temperature during change of phase.

 When a solid melts, latent heat of fusion is absorbed but

the temperature remains constant at its melting point.
 For a liquid to solidify at its freezing point, latent heat of
fusion has to be removed.
 When a liquid is boiling, latent heat of vaporization is
absorbed but the temperature remains constant at its
boiling point.
 When vapour condenses back into the liquid phase,
latent heat of vaporization is released.
Change of State of Matter Explained by Using the Kinetic Theory
AB : The heat absorbed by the solid
raises its temperature to its melting
point.
BC : Heat is absorbed by the solid as
it melts, but the temperature remains
constant. The solid melts to become a
liquid at the same time.
PQ : Heat is given out by the liquid as
it cools to its freezing point.
QR : Heat is given out by the liquid as
it solidifies but the temperature remains
AB : The heat absorbed by the
liquid raises its temperature to
its boiling point.
BC : Heat is absorbed by the
liquid as it boils, but the
temperature remain constant.
The liquid boils to become a
gas at the same temperature.
PQ : Heat is given out by the
gas as it cools to the boiling point
QR : Heat is given out by the
gas as it condenses but the
constant. The liquid solidifies to become temperature remain constant.
a solid at the same temperature. The gas condenses to become
a liquid at the same temperature.
Common characteristics of the four processes in the change of phase:

 A substance undergoes a charge of phase at a particular temperature.

 Heat energy is transferred during change of phase.
 During change of phase, the temperature remains constant even though
there is transfer of heat.

Notes: The temperature of a substance is proportional to the average kinetic

energy of its particles.
 Temperature increases when the average kinetic energy og the particles
increase.
 Temperature decreases when the average kinetic energy of the particles
decreases.
 Temperature remains constant when the average kinetic energy does
not change.

Why does the temperature remains  During change of phase, the

constant during change of phase? transfer of heat does not cause a
change in the kinetic energy of
the molecules.
 During melting, the heat
absorbed is used to break up the
bonds between the particles. The
particles are feed from their fixed
positions and are able to vibrate
and move among each other.
 When a liquids boils, the heat
absorbed is used to completely
break the bonds between the
particles and also to do work
against atmospheric pressure
when the gaseous vapour
expands into the atmosphere.

 Latent Heat
Latent Heat of Fusion
 The heat absorbed by a
melting solid is known as the
latent heat of fusion.
 During melting, the heat
absorbed is used to break up
the bonds between the
particles.
 The particles are freed from
their fixed positions and are
able to vibrate and move
among each other as
illustrated in Figure 4.10.
Latent Heat of Vaporisation
 The heat absorbed during
boiling is known as the latent
heat of vaporisation.
 When a liquid boils, the heat
absorbed is used to completely
break the bonds between the
particles and also to do work
against atmospheric pressure
when the gaseous vapour
expands into the atmosphere,
as illustrated in Figure 4.11.
Specific Latent Heat, l

 The amount of heat required to change the phase of a substance

depends on the mass and the type of material of the substance.
 The specific latent heat of a substance, l is the amount of heat required
to change the phase of 1 kg of the substance at a constant temperature.

The specific latent heat, unit: J kg

Where Q = latent heat absorbed or released by the substance

M = mass of the substance

If 3 kg of ice at 0 °C requires 1 008 000 J of latent heat for it to melt to become

water at 0 °C, 1 kg of ice requires 1 008 000 336 000 J of latent heat.
3
This means that the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 336 000 J kg .
The latent heat absorbed or released when a substance of mass, m changes
from one phase to another is given by

Q = ml

Specific latent heat of fusion The amount of heat required to

Specific latent heat of vaporisation
change 1 kg of the substance from
solid to liquid phase without a change
in temperature
The amount of heat required to
change 1 kg of the substance from the
liquid to gaseous phase without a
change in temperature
4.4 Understanding the Gas Laws

The Gas Laws

Boyle’s law Pressure Law Charles’ Law

Absolute zero

General Gas Equation

Application
Properties of Gases

Property of gas Explanation based on the kinetic theory

Volume  The molecules move freely in random motion and fill up
the whole space in the container.
 The volume of the gas is equal to the volume of the
container.
Temperature  The molecules are in continuous random motion and have
an average kinetic energy which is proportional to the
temperature.
Pressure  The molecules are in continuous random motion.
 When a molecule collides with the wall of the container
and bounces back, there is a change in momentum and a
force is exerted on the wall.
 The force per unit area is the pressure of the gas.
Relationship between Pressure and Volume

 When the volume of a gas is decreased, the number of molecules per unit
volume increases, that is, the same number of molecules will move in a
smaller space.
 The molecules collide more frequently with the walls of the container. This
increase in the rate of collision results in an increase in the pressure exerted
by the gas.

Boyle’s Law

 Boyle’s law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is
inversely proportional to its volume when the temperature is kept
constant.
 The mathematical expression for Boyle’s Law is

that is PV = constant
or P V = P V
  Boyle’s Law can be shown graphically as in Figure 4.13.

Relationship between Volume and Temperature

 When the temperature of a gas raised, the molecules move faster as

their kinetic energy increases.
 The molecules push the piston so that the gas expands and the pressure
remains constant.
  The volume of a gas decrease when its temperature is lowered. The
temperature at which the volume of the gas is expected to become zero
can be obtained by extrapolating the graph of volume against
temperature.
 The temperature -273 °C is the lowest possible temperature and is
known as the absolute zero of temperature.
 The corresponding temperatures in the Celsius and Kelvin scales are as
follows:

Temperature Celsius scale Kelvin scale

Absolute zero -273 °C 0K
Ice point 0 °C 273 K
Steam point 100 °C 373 K
Unknown temperature °C ( + 273) K

Charles’ Law

 Charles’ law states for a fixed mass of gas, the volume of the gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature when its pressure is kept constant.
 The mathematical expression for Charles’ Law is

V T
That is = constant

Or =
Relationship between Pressure and Temperature

 When the temperature of a gas is raised, the kinetic energy of the

molecules increases.
 The molecules move faster and collide more frequently with the walls of
the container. Thus, the pressure of the gas increases.

Pressure Law

 Pressure law states that for a fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature when its volume is kept
constant.
 The mathematical expression for the pressure law is

P T
That is = constant

Or =