CHAPTER 4 HEAT

4.1 Thermal Equilibrium

Temperature • Temperature is the degree of heat of an object.

• SI unit is Kelvin, K.
• Hot object has higher temperature than the cold object.
• The temperature of an object depends on the kinetic energy of
the molecules in the object. The higher the kinetic energy of the
molecules in an object, the higher the temperature.

Heat • Heat is a form of energy.

• The unit of measurement is Joule, J.
• Heat is transferred from a hotter object to a cooler object.
• When an object is heated, it will absorb heat energy and the
temperature of the object increases.
• When the object is cooled, it releases heat energy and the
temperature of the object decreases.

Thermal contact Two objects are in thermal contact conditions when heat energy
can be transferred between them.

Thermal Before the thermal equlibrium is reached

equilibrium
Object Object
A B
Heat

When two objects A and B are located near, heat energy will flow
from higher temperature of A to lower temperature of B until
objects A and B reach the same temperature.

When the thermal equilibrium is reached

Object Object
A B
Heat
Heat

When object A and B reach the same temperature, the rate of

heat energy transfer from object A to object B and from object B
to object A is equal.
When this happens, object A and B are said to be in terms of
thermal equilibrium.

When thermal equilibrium is achieved on two objects, then no

net heat (0 J) flows between the two, ie, the rate of heat energy
absorption is equal to the rate of heat energy release at the
same temperature.

113
 Examples of Applications Involving Thermal Equilibrium
Put a wet towel on the head of a fever patient

In the beginning, the wet towel temperature was lower than

the heat fever patient's temperature. Heat energy moves
from patient's head to wet towel so that thermal equilibrium
is achieved.
In this way, heat energy can be removed from the patient
and can lower the body temperature of the fever patients.

Store food in the refrigerator

When foods and drinks are put into the refrigerator, heat
energy from food and drinks is transferred to the
environment in the refrigerator.
This process persists until the temperature of the food and
drink equals the temperature of the environment in the
refrigerator when the thermal equilibrium is reached.

Measuring body temperature

When a clinical thermometer is used to measure the

patient's body temperature, heat energy is transferred from
the body to the liquid alcohol in the thermometer causing
the development of alcohol in the capillary tubes.
When alcohol and patient body reach a thermal equilibrium,
the expansion of alcoholic liquids in capillary tubes stops
and the thermometer provides body temperature reading.

Liquid Thermal In-Glass Thermometer

Liquid properties used in 1. Easy to look or opaque liquid

liquid-in-glass thermometers 2. Develop uniformly when heated
3. Not attached to the glass wall
4. Good heat conductor
5. High boiling point and low freezing point.

How does fluid-in-glass
thermometer work?
• Bulb thermometer contains mercury liquid with fixed
mass. The volume of mercury increases when it
absorbs heat.
• Liquid mercury expands and increases in capillary
tubes. The length of the mercury column in the
capillary tube may indicate the temperature value of
an object.

Fluid

Bulb
Capillary tube

114
 Laboratory thermometer
How does the thermometer • The temperature scales and temperature units are
be measured? obtained by selecting two temperatures known as the
upper fixed point and the lower fixed point.
• Lower fixed point is the ice temperature that is
melting and taken as 0 ° C.
Boiling • The upper fixed point is steam temperature over
100 C
point boiling water at atmospheric pressure of 76 cm Hg
and taken as 100 ° C.

L100

Capillary
tube L0 Melting
ice Boiling
water

Mercury To determine the temperature of another object by

using a thermometer without a latch, the following
formula is used:

Melting Lθ  L0
0C  100
point = L100  L0 

Bulb Where LD is the length of the mercury column

temperature,  certain unknown.

Thermometer Working Principle Based on Principle of Thermal Equilibrium

• When a thermometer is inserted in hot water, heat flows
from hot water to thermometer.
• When a thermal equilibrium is reached, rate of net heat
transfer rate is zero.
• The thermometer temperature is the same as the hot water
temperature.
• Therefore the thermometer reading at that time is a hot
water temperature.

The ideal mercury properties are used as a liquid in the thermometer:

• Good heat conductor.
• High boiling point of 357 C.
• Develop uniformly when heated and uniformly shrink when cooled.
• Oval fluid (non-penetrable light) and easily visible.
• The low freezing point is -39 °C, therefore it is not suitable for use in temperatures
less than this as in the south pole.

Sensitivity of the mercury thermometer can be improved by:

• Using smaller capillary tubes.

115
Exercise 4.1 Thermal equilibrium

(1) The diagram shows a mercury

thermometer.
(a) State the characteristics of P and Q that
help increase the sensitivity of the
thermometer.

P :............................................................. Q : ........................................................

(b) What is the principle used in this thermometer when measuring the temperature of
an object?

...............................................................................................................................................

(c) When calibrating the thermometer it is found that the length of mercury column
when included in molten ice and steam is 12 cm and 20 cm respectively. Calculate:

(i) The temperature of an object if the (i) The length of the mercury column if
length of the mercury column becomes 7 this thermometer is placed in a
cm when the thermometer is included in temperature of 20 oC.
the material.

(2) An unlabeled mercury thermometer has

a mercury length of 5 cm and 25 cm when it
is included in melting ice and steam
respectively. When inserted into a liquid it
is found to be 12 cm long. What is the
temperature of the liquid?

(3) The length of the mercury column of a

thermometer is 20 cm and 8 cm
respectively when inserted in steam and
melted ice. What is the length of the
mercury column when it is included in a 50
o
C temperature?

116
4.2 Specific Heat Capacity

Heat capacity The heat capacity of a material is defined as the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of the material by 1 °C or 1 K.

The heat-loading unit is J C-1 or J K-1.

Generate ideas about heat capacity

Relationship If both beakers are heated for 5 minutes with the same Bunsen
between burner, the rise of paraffin temperature is higher than the water
type of material temperature rise.
with heat capacity
Thermometer Conclusion:
This experiment shows that different materials undergo different
temperature rise if the same quantity of heat is supplied and the
mass of the substances is the same.

1 kg paraffin 1 kg water

The relationship If the water in beaker A and beaker B is heated for 5 minutes
between the mass using the same Bunsen burner, the rise in water temperature in
of the material and beaker A is higher than the temperature rise in the beaker B.
the heat capacity
Thermometer Conclusion:
This experiment shows that the temperature rise of a substance
depends on the mass of the substance if the quantity of heat
supplied is the same.

Beaker A Beaker B

The relationship If water in beaker C is heated for 1 minute and water in beaker D
between heat is heated for 5 minutes using the same Bunsen Burner, the rise
quantity and heat in water temperature in beaker C is found to be less than the rise
capacity in water temperature in beaker D.
Termometer
Conclusion:
This experiment shows that the temperature rise of a substance
depends on the quantity of heat supplied, if the mass of the
substance is the same.

Beaker C Beaker D
Conclusion: The heat capacity of a substance depends on the type of
material, the mass of the material and the quantity of heat
supplied.

Specific Heat Specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat

Capacity required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of material by 1 ° C.

117
 Simbol: c Specific heat capacity formula:
Q
SI unit for specific
c = m
heat capacity,
c = J kg-1 C-1 Q = Heat absorbed or released, unit J
m = Mass of material, kg unit
 = The difference in temperature of the starting and ending unit,
C unit.

The quantity of
heat absorbed or
released by the
material, Q
Q = mc
What does the 900 J heat required by 1 kg of aluminum to raise the temperature
specific heat by 1 ° C.
capacity of
aluminium
= 900 J kg-1C-1

What does the

specific heat ...............................................................................................................
capacity of water ...............................................................................................................
mean? ..............................................................................................................
=4200 J kg-1C-1

Exercise 4.2 Specific Heat Capaciy

(1) Calculate the total heat energy

required to heat 2 kg of steel from 30 C
to 70 C. (specific heat capacity of steel =
500 J kg-1C-1)

(2) A 2 kW soaked heater, 240 V is used

to heat 4 kg of water. What is the water
temperature when the water is heated for
8 minutes. The initial temperature of the
water is 28 C.
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J
kg-1 C-1)

(3) 4 kg of water releases heat of 8.4 x

105 J when cooled from a temperature of
90 C to a temperature of 40 C.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of
the water.

118
(4) 420 kJ heat is released when 2 kg of
water is cooled from 70 ° C. What is the
final temperature of water? (specific heat
capacity of water = 4.2 x 103 J kg-1 C-1)

(5) Calculate the total heat energy

released when a metal X of 5.0 kg mass
is cooled from 30 C to 20 C.
(specific heat capacity of metal X = 500 J
kg-1 C-1)

(6) 0.2 kg of hot water at 100 C is mixed

with 0.25 kg of cold water at 10 C. What
is the final temperature of the mixture?

(7) 600 g of cold water is at a

temperature 40 ° C. When the hot water
masses 400 g at 90 ° C is mixed to cold
water, determine the final temperature of
the mixture.

119
(8) Liquid M masses 0.5 kg at 40 C is included in a beaker containing 2 kg of liquid
N at 25 C. Calculate the final temperature of liquid mixture M and liquid N.
(specific heat capacity of liquid, M = 8.4 x 103J kg-1C-1)
(specific heat capacity of liquid, N= 4.2 x 103 J kg-1C-1)

Experiment: Determine the specific heat capacity of a solid (Aluminum Block)

Thermometer
Aluminium block

12V current supply a.u Cotton wool

Oil

Immersion heater Asbestos

25W
Power Heater, P = .................. Watt • Record the power of immersion heater
used = P Watt
The mass of Al block, m = .................
kg • Weight of aluminum block mass = m

The starting temperature of the block • Record the initial temperature of the
Al, 1 = ............ C aluminum block = 1.

The final temperature of the Al block, • Turn on the heater and simultaneously
2 = ............ C with the start of the stopwatch.

The warming time, t = ................ s • After time, t, turn off the heater and record
the maximum temperature of the aluminum
Energy released by heaters, Q = Pt block = 2
 

120
Q = ............................ J • Calculate the heat energy released by the
heater, Q = Pt.
Specific heat capacity of Aluminum
block • Energy heat, Q absorbed by block Q = mc
Pt (2-1)
c = m(θ 2  θ1 ) • Assuming no heat loss to the
environment, heat energy released by heat
= heat energy absorbed by aluminum
blocks.

  Pt = mc (2-1)
Pt
c = m(θ2  θ1 )

Precautions:

...............................................................................................................................................

Experiment: Determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid (water)

Thermometer

Polysterine sheet

12 V power supply a.u

Water

Polysterine cup

Immersion heater 25 W
Power Heater = .................. Watt • Record the power of immersion heater
used = P Watt
Empty cup mass, m1 = ................. kg
• Weight of empty cup mass = m1
Mass of cup + water, m2 = ................ kg
• Put the water in the polystyrene cup
Water mass, mair = m2 - m1 and weigh the mass = m2
= ................... kg
• Record the initial temperature of water
The initial temperature of the water, 1 = 1
= ............... C
• Turn on the heater and simultaneously
The final temperature of the water, 2 with the start of the stopwatch.
= ............... C
• After time, t, turn off the heater and
The warming time, t = .................. s record the maximum water temperature
= 2
Energy released by heaters, Q = Pt

121
  • Calculate the energy released by the
Q = ............................ J heater, Q = Pt

Specific heat capacity of water, liquid = • Energy heat absorbed by water, Q =

Pt mair c (2 - 1)
c = m air (θ 2  θ1 ) • Assume no loss of heat to the
environment, heat energy released by
heat = heat energy absorbed by water.
     Pt = mair c (2 - 1)
Pt
c = m air (θ 2  θ1 )
Precautions:
...............................................................................................................................................

Comparison of specific heat capacity value, c obtained by experiment and

theoretical value
• The specific heat capacity value, c obtained from the experiment is greater than
the theoretical value.
• This is due to the loss of heat to the environment causing the temperature rise to
be smaller.

Applications of specific heat capacity in everyday life

Differences in the physical Specific When heated When freezed
properties of substances heat
that have different specific capacity
heat capacities. Small Temperature rises Temperature
quickly decreases quickly
Large Temperature rises Temperature
slowly decreases slowly
The nature of the material that has a small specific heat capacity
1. This material is a heat absorber that........................

Material temperature ......................... in the moment ...................... when heated and

........................... in time ........................ when cooled.

Examples of metals like ......................, ........................ and ...................... are used as a

pot and a pan. This is because the metal can be ............................ quickly.

2. This material.............................on temperature changes.

Example: The metal ....................... in the thermometer has specific heat capacity

which ....................... allows it to absorb and release heat quickly.

The properties of substances that have a large specific heat capacity

1. This material is a heat absorber that ........................

122
Material temperature ............................... in time ........................ when heated and

............................ in time .............................. when cooled.

2. This material .............................. heat energy in quantity ....................... without

experiencing temperature increase ..........................

Example: ....................... is used as a coolant agent in a vehicle radiator.

Examples of applications and situations involve specific heat capacity in daily life
Cooking utensils 1. Stoves and pans are made of metal such as copper
and aluminum which have a specific heat capacity

2. This allows the pot and pan to be heated quickly to

reduce fuel consumption.

3. Holders of pans and pans are made of non-metallic

materials such as plastic and wood which have specific
heat capacity which ......................

4. This ensures that the handle of the pan and pans is

not easy to heat and easy to handle.

Sea breeze phenomena 1. Land has a specific heat capacity that is

more ....................... than the ocean. Then the land
temperature increased by more than the ocean
temperature during the day.

2. The air on the ground becomes .................. and

upwards.

3. More air ................ than the ocean moves towards the

land as a bay ..............

Land breeze phenomena 1. The ocean has a specific heat load that is
more ............... than the mainland. Therefore, the ocean
temperature decreases more than the average inland
temperature at night.

2. Air over the surface of the ocean which .............. will

rise to the top.

3. More air .............. than the mainland will move

towards the ocean as breeze ................

123
 Water as a cooling agent in 1. Water has a specific heat capacity which is ..............
a vehicle radiator It is therefore used as a cooling agent in a vehicle
radiator.

2. The heat generated from the engine ............... by the

water flowing along the engine's outer space. Water
can absorb heat energy which ................. with
increasing temperature ......................

3. The heated water is streamed through the cooling

fins and assisted by the fan to lower the water
temperature. The cooled water is streamed back to the
engine wall space.

4.3 Specific Latent Heat

Latent heat Absorbed heat or heat released at constant temperature

during a change in the state of matter of a particular
substance.

Generate an idea of latent heat

Water boiling When the water is heated, the temperature will increase
until it reaches the boiling point.

• During boiling, the water temperature remains constant at

100 C although the water is constantly heated.

• During boiling, the water (liquid) changes to water vapor

(gas).

Ice melting • Ice melts at melting point 0 ° C. When ice melts, heat
energy is absorbed from the environment.

• When ice melts, the ice temperature is constant at 0 ° C

even if the ice is still absorbing heat from the environment.

• During the melting process, ice (solid) changes to water

(liquid).
Discussion:
• All changes in the state of matter matter without any change in temperature.
• Since the process of changing the state of matter does not occur without
temperature changes, the heat absorbed or released by the substance is as if hidden
or hidden.
• The heat absorbed or released during the process of change of matter without any
temperature changes is called latent heat.

124
 Latent heat

Absorbed when Released when

Ice turns into water at its Steam turns into water at

melting point. condensation point.

Water turns steam at its boiling Water turns into ice at its
point freezing point

Change in state of matter and latent heat

Fusion Vaporization

Solid Gas (steam)

Solidification Liquid Condensation

• When a solid melts, the latent heat of fusion is absorbed at a fixed temperature
known as melting point.
• When a liquid freezes, the latent heat of fusion is released at a fixed temperature
known as frozen point.
• When the liquid is boiling, the latent heat of evaporating is absorbed at a fixed
temperature known as boiling point.
• When condensed gas, the latent heat of vaporization is released at a fixed
temperature known as condensation point.

Matter heating graph

(Heat energy absorbed)
Temperature/ C
Boiling point
Vaporisation
Liquid Gas

Melting
point Liquid
Fusion
Solid Liquid

Solid

t/s

125
 Matter cooling graph
(Heat energy released)
Temperature/ C

Gas Condensation
Gas Liquid

Condensation Liquid Solidification

point Liquid Solid

Freezing Solid
point
t/s
The common • A material changes the state of the matter when it reaches a
characteristics of certain temperature (degree).
the four changes • Heat energy is transferred during the change in state of matter.
in state of matter • During the change in state of matter, the temperature is fixed
even though heat transfer is still occurring.

The temperature • Temperature of material increases when the average kinetic

relationship of a energy of particles in the material increases.
material with the • The material temperature decreases as the average kinetic
kinetic energy of energy of the particles in the material decreases.
the particles in the • Fixed material temperature when the average kinetic energy of
material the particles in the material is unchanged.

Why is the material • During changes in state of matter, heat energy transfer does
temperature not cause changes to the kinetic energy of the particles in the
constant during material.
changes in the • During the melting process, the absorbed heat energy is used
state of matter? to break the bond between the solid particles.
• The particles are released from their fixed position and move
more freely. In this case the solid material changes to the liquid.
• During boiling, the absorbed heat energy is used to break the
bond between the particles in the liquid perfectly to form gas
(steam).

Specific latent The specific latent heat of a material is the amount of heat
heat, L energy required to change the material state of 1 kg of
substance at constant temperature.

Q = mL
Q
L= m

Q is the heat energy absorbed or released

m is the mass of the material

126
 unit Q L is specific latent heat
Unit L 
unit m
J S.I Unit for specific latent heat is J kg-1.

kg
 J kg -1
Specific latent heat Specific latent heat of fusion, Lf:
of fusion The heat energy required to convert 1 kg of material from solid
state to liquid (or vice versa) at constant temperature.

Specific latent heat Specific latent heat of vaporization, Lv:

of vaporization The heat energy required to convert 1 kg of material from liquid
state to vapor (or vice versa) at constant temperature.

The calculation of the amount of heat energy absorbed in the graph of heating matter
/ C

3 Vaporisation

Fusion
2

1 t/s
Q1 = mc(2-1) Q2 = mLf Q3 = mc(3-2) Q4 = mLv
The amount of heat energy absorbed, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4

The calculation of the total heat energy released in the graph of cooling matter
/C

Condensation
2

Solidification
1

t/s
Q1 = mc(3-2) Q2 = mLv Q3 = mc(2-1) Q4 = mLf

127
 The amount of heat energy released, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +

Exercise 4.3 Specific latent heat

(1) How much heat energy is needed to

convert 0.1 kg of ice into water at its
melting point?
(Specific latent heat of ice fusion = 3.34 x
105 J kg-1)

(2) How much heat is released when 0.5

kg of steam is condensed into water at
100 C?
(Latent heat of water evaporation = 2.26 x
106 J kg-1)

(3) Liquid X boiling loss of 4 kg when

heated with a 240 V, 10 kW heater for 5
minutes. Determine the latent heat of the
liquid vaporization in the unit kJ kg-1.

(4) 400 g of water in beaker is at 100 C.

How much heat energy is needed to
convert this whole water to steam?
(Latent heat is definitely water vapor
=2.3 x 106 J kg-1 )

(5) If the specific latent heat of ice fusion

is 3.3 x 105 J kg-1, calculate the total heat
released in 300 g of water at 0 ° C
freezes?

(6) How much heat energy is needed to

heat 2 kg of ice to water at 80 C?
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x
103 J kg-1 C-1, Particular heat of ice
fusion = 3.34 x 105 J kg-1)

128
(7) What is the quantity of heat needed to
convert 20 g ice at 0 C to water at 40 C?
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 x 103
J kg-1 C-1, Particular heat of ice fusion =
3.34 x 105 J kg-1)

Application of Specific Latent Heat

Ice cubes are added to drinking water to lower the
water temperature. Ice melts by absorbing heat energy
from drinking water. When energy is absorbed by ice to
melt, then the temperature of the drink can be reduced.

Ice is placed on the surface of fish or seafood to ensure

its freshness can be maintained. Ice melts by absorbing
heat energy from fish causing fish temperature to
decrease. Low fish temperatures approaching the
melting point temperature cause bacterial activity to be
halted or slowed.

Water has a specific latent heat of high vaporization.

When water vapor is exposed to a cooler food
temperature, water vapor will be condensed. Cooked
food will absorb heat released by water vapor during
the condensation process. This causes food to be
cooked faster because it absorbs heat energy much in
a closed state.

Experiment: Determine specific latent heat of ice fusion

(a) (b)
Apparatus (a) is used to determine the Apparatus (b) is a control apparatus
specific latent heat of ice

Procedure: Procedure:
1. Weight mass of beaker (a). 1. Weight of beaker mass (b).
2. 25 W power heater is used to melt 2. Ice is allowed to melt by using

129
ice for 5 minutes.
3. Weight mass of beaker (a) + water.
4. Measure the mass of ice melted by
heaters.
5. Measure latent heat value
environmental heat for 5 minutes.
3. Weight of beaker mass (b) + water.
4. Measure the mass of ice melted by the
heat of the environment.

Q is the heat supplied by the soaking

Q Pt heater.
m is the mass of ice melted by heat only.
Lice fusion = m = m =
t is the warming time.

4.4 Gas Laws

Gas physics quantities

• There are four physical quantities involving gas ie pressure, volume, temperature
and mass of gas.
• For fixed mass gas, changes to a physical quantity will cause changes in other
physical quantities.

Gas pressure
• The gas pressure is caused by the force per unit area produced by
gas molecules when it collides with a container wall containing it.
• According to the kinetic theory of matter, gas molecules always
move randomly and constantly collide with each other and also
collide with used wall.
• When gas molecules collide with used wall, it will be reflected
back at the same speed but in the direction the opposite. The
momentum changes that occur during the collision cause an
impulsive force to be applied to the used wall.
• The force acting on one area of the former wall produces gas pressure.
• The larger the collision rate (frequency) of the gas molecules per unit area of the
wall surface of the container, the greater the gas pressure is generated.
• The frequency of collisions of gas molecules depends on gas density and gas
temperature.
• When the density of gas increases, the number of gas molecules per volume
increases, and thus the frequency of collisions between gas molecules and used wall
increases.

High gas Low gas

pressure pressure

High density Low density

• When gas temperature increases, the velocity of the gas molecules increases and
therefore the frequency of collisions with gas molecules with the wall increased.
Therefore, gas pressure increases.

130
 Low temperature High temperature
gas molecules gas molecules

Boyle’s Law
• Boyle's law states that for a constant mass gas, gas pressure, P is inversely
proportional to its content, V if the temperature of the gas, T is constant.

1 1
P
V, P = constant  V , PV = gas constant

• According to Boyle's law, if the initial pressure and volume of a

fixed mass of gas is P1 and V1, and P1 V1 = P2V2 the final value turns to P2 and V2
with the temperature T, that the gas is constant.

Boyle's Law based on kinetic theory of matter

• At constant temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is
constant.
• If the volume of a gas with fixed mass is reduced, the number of molecules of the
volume unit increases (increasing gas density).
• The increase in the number of molecules of the volume unit will increase the rate of
collision between the molecules and the used wall and thus increase the force applied
to the used wall.
• When the force acting on the wall of the container increases, the gas pressure will
increase.
• Hence, the pressure of a mass of gas will increase, when its volume decreases with
the condition that the temperature of the gas is constant.

131
 Exercise: Boyle’s Law
P1 V1 = P2V2
4
(1) A gas has a pressure of 3 × 10 Pa (2) An air bubble is formed at the base of
and is composed of 0.4 m3. The gas is an ocean depth of 40 m. The bubble
undergoing expansion so the pressure volume at that time is 2.0 cm3. What is the
4
becomes 6 × 10 Pa. What is the volume volume of the bubble when it comes to the
of gas now? surface?
(Atmospheric pressure = 10 m sea water)

(3) A 5 cm3 compound balloon is filled
with air at a pressure of 1 × 105 Pa. When
the balloon is blown up to a volume of
20 cm3, what is the gas pressure in the
balloon in the standard form?
(4) An air bubble of 0.1 cm3 is located at
the base of a lake. If the depth of the lake
is 20 m and the atmospheric pressure is 10
m water, calculate the volume of air bubble
when it reaches the surface of the water?

(5) A 500 cm3 beaker is enclosed at the (6) How much of a balloon should be
surface of the water and submerged in submerged in water so that the contents
depth of 2.5 m. What is the volume of 2
water entering the depth? become the original volume?
5
(Atmospheric pressure = 10 m water) (Atmospheric pressure = 10 m water)

132
 mercury 4 cm air 30 cm

h cm air
air 10 cm h cm

(7) The diagram shows a glass tube
filled with 4 cm of mercury to trap 10 cm
of air. Mercury is added so the length of
the air column is 8 cm. What is the
length of mercury, h2 at that time?
mercury 24 cm
(a) (b)
(8) The diagram (a) above shows an air
column trapped 30 cm by mercury h cm in
a capillary tube. The capillary tube is then
bonded so that the length of the air is
trapped to 24 cm as shown in figure (b).
Determine the mercury length, h in the S.I
unit.
(Pressure atomosphere = 76 cm Hg)

9) Explain why the volume of air bubbles increases as it moves from below to the
surface of the water.

Sea Air bubbles

Air pump

Aquarium

133
...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

Boyle's Law Experiment

Variables Variables
MV:Volume of trapped air MV: Pressure of trapped air
RV: Pressure of trapped air RV: Volume of trapped air
FV: Temperature of trapped air FV: Temperature of trapped air
Procedure Procedure
1. The piston of syringe is adjusted until 1. The piston of syringe is adjusted until
the volume of trapped air is 80 ml. the pressure reached 10 N cm-2.
2. The pressure readings of trapped air 2. The volume readings of trapped air
are recorded. recorded.
3. Steps are repeated for different 3. Steps are repeated for pressure of
volume of trapped air = 70 ml, 60 ml, 50 trapped air = 20 N cm-2, 30 N cm-2, 40 N
ml and 40 ml. cm-2 and 50 N cm-2.

Rubber tube

Bourdon gauge

Boyle’s Law graph

Graph P against V Relationship of graph P against V:
P
.......................................................................

.......................................................................

.......................................................................

.......................................................................
V ……………………………………………………
0

134
 1 1
Graf P melawan V Relationship of graph P against V :
P
.......................................................................

.......................................................................

.......................................................................

1 .......................................................................
0
V
……………………………………………………

Charles’s Law
• Charles's law states that for a steady gas, gas volume, V is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature, T if the gas pressure is constant.
V
VT V = constant  T T = gas constant

• According to Charles's law, if the initial volume and temperature of a mass of gas is
V1 and T1 and the final value turns to V2 and T2, then

V1 V2

T1 T2

provided pressure, the gas P is constant.

Volume of gas (V1) Volume of gas (V2)

Gas temperature (T2)

Gas temperature (T1)

Charles's Law based on the kinetic theory of matter

• When the temperature of a gas is added, the gas molecules move with higher
velocity as the average kinetic energy of the molecule increases.

• If gas volume remains constant, gas pressure will increase as gas molecules with
higher velocities will collide with container walls more often and stronger.

• If the gas pressure is to be maintained, the volume of the gas has to increase so that
the number of molecules of the volume is reduced and thereby maintaining the
frequency of collisions between gas molecules and used walls.

135
• Therefore, the volume of a gas whose mass will increase as the temperature
increases as the pressure of the gas is constant.

Low gas High gas

Absolute Temperature Scae

• According to Charles's Law, the volume graph
against temperature (in units C) is a straight line
Volume,V that is not through the origin. If this graph is
extrapolated this graph will cut the temperature axis
at -273 C.

• Temperature -273 C is the lowest temperature

possible for a gas.

• At this temperature, the gas molecule energy is

/C
minimum.
-273C
• Temperature -273 °C is known as absolute zero
temperature.

• Kelvin scale or absolute scale used in solving

Volume, V
problems involving gas laws.
• The temperatures listed in Kelvin units are called
absolute temperatures.
• Absolute zero is the zero point on the Kelvin Scale,
which is equivalent to -273 ° C. 0 K = -273 C
• Therefore, the absolute scale and the Celsius scale
T/K can be linked by the equation:  C = ( + 273) K
0
Unit conversion C to Kelvin Example of unit conversion from C to K:
(K) -273 C = (-273 + 273) K = 0 K
     0 C = (0 + 273) K = 273 K
 100 C = (100 + 273) K = 373 K

The conversion of this unit is important in solving

problems involving Charles's law and pressure law.

Exercise : Charles’s Law

V1 V2

T1 T2

T is the temperature value in the Kelvin unit.

136
(1) A certain mass of gas at constant pressure has a volume of 4.0 m3 at a temperature
of 30 C. What is the volume of gas at 60 C?

(2) The table on the side shows the V /cm3 150 300
volume and temperature values of a gas T / oC -23 X
at a constant pressure. Calculate the
value of X.

(3) A glass duct traps the air along 29 cm at a

temperature of 17 C using mercury. What is the
length of air caught when the glass duct is
heated to 57 C? mercury

29 cm
air

(4) The diagram shows an air column trapped along 10 cm

by a mercury strip 5 cm at 27 ° C. Calculate the
temperature,  in the C unit to be achieved when heated
to 12 cm in length?
V1 = 10 cm,
T1 = (27 + 273) = 300 K mercury
V2 = 12 cm
air 10 cm

137
(5) Figure shows the air is trapped by mercury. The length of
the air column trapped at 15 oC is 24 cm. What is the length of
air column trapped at 80 oC?T1 = (15 + 273) K =288 K
V1 = 24 cm
T2 = (80 + 273) = 353 K mercury

air

24 cm

Charles’s Law Experiment

Variables
MV: Temperature of trapped air
RV: Volume of trapped air
FV: Pressure of trapped air
Procedurre
1. Water is heated until temperature reaches 50 °C.
2. The length of the air column, L is measured by ruler.
3. Steps are repeated for air temperature = 60 °C, 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C.

Paraffin
Lengt
oil
h of
air Trapped
colum air
n, L

138
 Charles’s Law Graph
Graph of air volume against absolute V graph's relationship against
temperature absolute temperature, T:
Air volume, V
................................................................
P
................................................................

................................................................

Absolute
0 temperature, T/K
Graph of air volume against temperature, (C)
Isi padu udara, V
................................................................
The relationship of graph V against
temperature, :
................................................................
................................................................

................................................................

................................................................
Temperature,
- 273 C /C ……………………………………………..

Hukum Tekanan
• The Pressure Law states that for a gas whose mass is constant, the gas pressure, P
is proportional to its absolute temperature, T if the gas volume is constant.

P
P T P = constant  T =gas constant
T

• Under pressure law, if the initial pressure and temperature of a mass of gas remains
P1 and T1, and the final value turns to P2 and T2, then

P1 P2

T1 T2

provided that the volume, V of the gas is constant.

Pressure Law based on kinetic theory of matter

• When the temperature of a gas increases, the gas molecules will move with higher
velocity.
• If the gas volume remains constant, the gas molecules with higher velocities will
collide with the wall of the container more often and stronger.
• Hence, gas molecules impose greater force on the container walls that contain them.
• When the force applied to the used wall increases, the gas pressure increases.
• Hence, the pressure of a mass of gas will increase as the temperature increases as
the volume of the gas is constant.

139
 When the When the
temperature temperature
increases, then the
decreases, the air
air pressure
pressure decreases increases

Exercise: Pressure Law

P1 P2

T1 T2

T is the temperature value in the Kelvin unit

(1) An airtight container contains air at
1 atm pressure. The initial temperature
of the air in the container is 27 C. What
is the air pressure in the container if the
air temperature in it is increased to 87
C?
(2) The air pressure in a car tire before
starting the journey is 22 kPa. At that point
the air temperature in the tire is 30 °C. The
air pressure in the tire increases to 25 kPa
after a long journey. What is the
temperature in the car at that time?
[Assume tire volume does not change]

Pressure Law Experiment

140
 Variables

MV: Temperature of trapped air

RV: Pressure of trapped air Stirrer

Procedure

Conical flask

Rubber tube
Water
Bourdon gauge
Beaker

Bunsen burner

Pressure Law Graph

Graph of pressure, P against absolute
temperature, T
Pressure graph relationship, P
Pressure, P against absolute temperature, T:
P ................................................................

................................................................

................................................................
Absolute
................................................................
temperature/K
0

Graph of pressure, P against temperature, T

Pressure, P Hubungan graf tekanan, P melawan
P suhu:

................................................................

................................................................

...............................................................
Temperature/
C
- 273 ................................................................

141
 Figure of experimental apparatus of Gas law
Boyle’s Law Experiment Charles’s Law Experiment

Thermometer
Trapped air

Capillary tube
Bourdon gauge

Piston
Oil Rubber band Trapped air

Air pump
Pressure Law Experiment
Rubber tube
Thermometer
Bourdon
gauge
Water

Air

142