BMTECHRE Unlocked

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING
Heat Transfer and Heat Exchanger TMC 4404/TMC 4415 CLASS: BTME/A Y4S1
LECTURE NOTES
Prepared by: Njeru Gatumu

UNIT: Heat Transfer and Heat Exchanger TMC
4404
Learning Outcomes for the Unit:
At the end of this course the student will be able to:

1.Explain the relative significance of heat transfer by various modes.
2.Describe heat exchangers designed, fabrication and use in
industry. 3.Apply the laws of thermodynamics to Heat transfer
processes; 4.Apply the laws of heat flow processes in Heat
exachangers; 5.Make basic calculations of heat transfer in
engineering systems.;
1
Chapter 1
Heat Transfer by conduction and
convection
Learning outcomes:
After completing solving of problems, and reading explanations and examples in this chapter,
the student should be able to:
1. Explain the terminologies used in heat transfer,
2. Describe heat transfer processes of conduction, and convection and
radiation, 3.Derive the expressions heat transfer through common materials
and shapes, 4.Apply derived equations of heat transfer to solve problems,
5.Relate given heat transfer processes to their practical applications in thermodynamics sys-
tems.
1.1 Introduction
The transfer of heat across the boundaries of a system, either to or from the system, has been
considered for non-flow and flow processes; the definition of heat as simply stated that; heat is
a form of energy which is transferred from one body to another body at a lower temperature by
virtue of the temperature difference between the bodies. When the mechanism of the transfer
of heat is considered a slightly different approach is necessary compared with the approach of
fundamental thermodynamics. For instance it becomes difficult to define a system. In order to
illustrate this point consider a bar of metal being heated at one end and cooled at the other.
Now a boundary may be put round the source of heat or round the sink for the rejection of heat,
but a boundary encircling the metal bar encloses a body the temperature of which varies
throughout its length. In order to apply the laws of thermodynamics to the system consisting of
the metal bar, a mean temperature must be assumed.
In solids, the heat is conducted by the following two mechanisms:
• By lattice vibration (The faster moving molecules or atoms in the hottest part of a body
transfer heat by impacts some of their energy to adjacent molecules).
• By transport of free electrons (Free electrons provide an energy flux in the direction of
decreasing temperature. For metals, especially good electrical conductors, the electronic
mechanism is responsible for the major portion of the heat flux except at low
temperature).
2
In case of gases, the mechanism of heat conduction is simple. The kinetic energy of a molecule
is a function of temperature. These molecules are in a continuous random motion exchanging
energy and momentum. When a molecule from the high temperature region collides with a
molecule from the low temperature region, it loses energy by collisions.
In liquids, the mechanism of heat is nearer to that of gases. However, the molecules are more
closely spaced and intermolecular forces come into play.
In previous studies many problems have been considered in which a certain quantity of heat
has been transferred from one system to another. In this chapter we shall be concerned with the
rate at which heat is transferred. The rate of heat transfer may be constant or variable,
depending on whether conditions are such that the temperatures remain the same or change
continually with time. Most problems in practice are concerned with steady-state heat transfer,
in which heat flows continuously at a uniform rate, but there are many cases of transient heat
transfer and some of these will also be considered.
In general there are three ways in which heat may be transferred: Conduction, Convection and
Radiation.
1.1.1 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same
substance, or from one substance to another in physical contact with it, without appreciable
displacement of the molecules forming the substance. For example, the heat transfer in the
metal bar mentioned previously is by conduction.
1.1.2 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat within a fluid by the mixing of one portion of the fluid with
another. The movement of the fluid may be caused by differences in density resulting from
the temperature differences as in natural convection (or free convection), or the motion may be
produced by mechanical means, as in forced convection. For example, the heat transferred
from a hot-plate to the atmosphere is by natural convection, whereas the heat transferred by a
domestic fan-heater, in which a fan blows air across an electric element, is by forced
convection.
The transfer of heat through solid bodies is by conduction alone, whereasthe heat transfer from
a solid surface to a liquid or gas takes place partly byconduction and partly by convection.
When- ever there is an appreciablemovement of the gas or liquid, the heat transfer by
conduction in the gas or liquid becomes negligibly small compared with the heat transfer by
convection. However, there is always a thin boundary layer of fluid on a surface, and through
this thin film the heat is transferred by conduction.
• Convection is possible only in a fluid medium and is directly linked with the transport of
medium itself.
• Convection constitutes the macroform of the heat transfer since macroscopic particles of
a fluid moving in space cause the heat exchange.
• The effectiveness of heat transfer by convection depends largely upon the mixing motion
of the fluid.
3
This mode of heat transfer is met with in situations where energy is transferred as heat to a
flowing fluid at any surface over which flow occurs. This mode is basically conduction in a
very thin fluid layer at the surface and then mixing caused by the flow. The heat flow depends
on the properties of fluid and is independent of the properties of the material of the surface.
However, the shape of the surface will influence the flow and hence the heat transfer.
Free or natural convection. //
Free or natural convection: occurs where the fluid circulates by virtue of the natural
differences in densities of hot and cold fluids ; the denser portions of the fluid move downward
because of the greater force of gravity, as compared with the force on the less dense.
Forced convection: When the work is done to blow or pump the fluid, it is said to be forced
convection.
1.1.3 Radiation
All matter continuously emits electromagnetic radiation unless its temperature is absolute zero.
It is found that the higher the temperature then the greater is are so placed that the radiation
from each body is intercepted by the other, then the body at the lower temperature will receive
more energy than it is radiating, and hence its internal energy will increase; similarly the
internal energy of the body at the higher temperature will decrease. Thus there is a net transfer
of energy from the high-temperature body to the low-temperature body by virtue of the
temperature difference between the bodies. This form of energy transfer satisfies the
definition of heat given in the previous study, and hence we may say that heat is transferred by
radiation.
Note:Details of heat by radiation will be studied under a separate topics due to its distinct
heat transfer mechanism.
In any particular example in practice, heat may be transferred by a combination of conduction,
convection, and radiation, and it is usually possible to assess the effects of each mode of heat
transfer separately and then to sum up the results. There are two main groups of problems;
first, the desirable transfer of heat to or from a fluid as in a heat exchanger, boiler, or
condenser, and second, the prevention of heat losses from a fluid to its surroundings.
1.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction
1.2.1 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

Fourier’s law of heat conduction is an empirical law based on observation and states as
follows: “The rate of flow of heat through a simple homogeneous solid is directly proportional
to the area of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and to change of
temperature with respect to the length of the path of the heat flow”.
Mathematically, it can be represented by the equation:
dt
Q˙ š A
dx
4
where, Q˙ Heat flow through a body per unit time (in watts), W,
A = Surface area of heat flow (perpendicular to the direction of flow), m2,
dt = Temperature difference of the faces of block (homogeneous solid) of thickness ‘dx’ through which
dx = Thickness of body in the direction of flow, m.
The law is illustrated in Figure 1.1(a) in which a thin slab of material of thickness dx and
surface area A has one face at a temperature t and the other at a temperature (t + dt). Then
applying Fourier’s law we have for the rate of heat flow in the direction x,
i.e., Rate of heat flow,Q˙ š .A

dt
dx
Thus,
Q˙ K A (1.1)
dt
dx
where, k = Constant of proportionality and is known as thermal conductivity of the body.
The -ve sign of k [equation (1.1)] is to take care of the decreasing temperature along withdtthe
direction of increasing thickness or the direction of heat flow. The temperature gradient is
dx
always negative along positive x direction and therefore the value of Q becomes +ve.
Figure 1.1: Heat

flow through a thin
slab of material.
The rate of heat flow in the direction x is taken as positive, hence the negative sign in equation
(1.1) since dt is always negative. The term A is called the thermal conductivity of the material.
1.2.2 Thermal Conductivity of Materials

The thermal conductivity of a substance can be defined as the heat flow per unit area per unit
time when the temperature decreases by one degree in unit distance.
The units of A are usually written as W /m K or kW /m K.
Consider the transfer of heat through a slab of material as shown in Figure 1.1 (b). At section
X-X, using equation equation (1.1).
5
˙ d1t ˙
Integrating
E Qx˙ dx E t2
kA dt
0 t1
t2
or Q˙ x k dt
A E
t1
This equation can be solved when the variation of thermal conductivity, k, with temperature, t,
is known. Now for most solids the value of the thermal conductivity is approximately constant
over a wide range of temperatures, and therefore k can be taken as constant,
t2
i.e., Q˙ x Ak E dt
t1
x
Ak x
Ak
or, Q˙ t2 t1 t1 t2 (1.2)
Note that in this case the area in the direction at right angles to the heat flow remains constant
through the slab. Cases will be considered later in which the area varies.
The thermal conductivities of some materials encountered in engineering are shown in Table
1.1. It follows from equation equation (1.1) that materials with high thermal conductivities are
good conductors of heat, whereas materials with low thermal conductivities are good thermal
insulators. Conduction of heat occurs most readily in pure metals, less so in alloys, and much
less readily in non-metals. The very low thermal conductivities of certain thermal insulators
(e.g. cork) are due to their porosity, the air trapped within the material acting as an insulator.
Gases and liquids are good insulators, but unless a completely stagnant layer of fluid is
obtained, heat is transferred by convection currents.
Assumptions:
The following are the assumptions on which Fourier’s law is based:
1. Conduction of heat takes place under steady state conditions.
2.The heat flow is unidirectional.
3.The temperatures gradient is constant and the temperature profile is linear.
4.There is no internal heat generation.
5. The bounding surfaces are isothermal in character.
6. The material is homogeneous and isotropic (i.e., the value of thermal conductivity is con-
stant in all directions).
Some essential features of Fourier’s Law:
Following are some essential features of Fourier’s law:
1. It is applicable to all matter (may be solid, liquid or gas).
2. It is based on experimental evidence and cannot be derived from first principle.
6
3. It is a vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is in the direction of decreasing
temperature and is normal to an isotherm.
4. It helps to define thermal conductivity ‘k’ (transport property) of the medium through
which heat is conducted.
From equation (1.1), we have, k = dx
Q˙
A dt dx
The value of k = 1 when = 1, A = 1 and 1
dt
Q˙ Q˙ dx
Now k = 1 m `
; unit of k : W = W/mK or W/m C

1 dt m2 K (or` C
Thermal conductivity (a property of material) depends essentially upon the following factors:
1.Material structure, 3. Density of the material,

4. Pressure and temperature (operating
2.Moisture content, conditions).
Table 1.1: Thermal conductivities (average values at normal pressure and temperature) of some
common materials.
S/No. Material Thermal conductivity (k) S/No. Material Thermal conductivity (k)
(W/mK) (W/mK)
1. Silver410 8. Asbestos sheet0.17
2. Copper385 9. Ash0.12
3. Aluminum225 10. Cork, felt0.05-0.10
4. Cast-iron55-65 11. Saw dust0.07
5. Steel20-45 12. Glass wool0.03
6. Concrete1.20 13. Water0.55-0.7
7. Glass (window)0.75 14. Freon0.0083
Following points regarding thermal conductivity-its variation for different materials and under
different conditions are worth noting:
1. Thermal conductivity of a material is due to flow of free electrons (in case of metals) and
lattice vibrational waves (in case of fluids).
`
2. Thermal conductivity in case of pure metals is the highest (k = 10 to 400 W/m C). It de-
creases with increase in impurity. The range of k for other materials is as
follows:
Alloys: = k 12 to 120 W/m C `Heat

`
insulating and building materials: k = 0.023 to 2.9 W/m C
Liquids: k 0.2 to 0.5 W/m C `
Gases and vapours: k 0.006 to 0.05 W/m C `

.
7
3. Thermal conductivity of a metal varies considerably when it (metal) is heat treated or
mechanically processed/formed.
4. Thermal conductivity of most metals decreases with the increase in temperature (alu-
minium and uranium being the exceptions).
• In most of liquids the value of thermal conductivity tends to decrease with tempera-
ture (water being an exception) due to decrease in density with increase in tempera-
ture.
• In case of gases the value of thermal conductivity increases with temperature. Gases
with higher molecular weights have smaller thermal conductivities than with lower
molecular weights. This is because the mean molecular path of gas molecules de-
creases with increase in density and k is directly proportional to the mean free path
of the molecule.
5. The dependence of thermal conductivity (k) on temperature, for most materials is almost
linear;
k = k0 1 βt (1.3)
where, k0 Thermal conductivity at 0 C, ànd

`
β Temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity, 1 C It is usually
positive for non-metals and insulating materials (magnesite bricks being the
exception and negative for metallic conductors aluminium and certain non-ferrous
alloys are the exceptions .
6. In case of solids and liquids, thermal conductivity (k) is only very weakly dependent on
pressure; in case of gases the value of k is independent of pressure (near standard atmo-
spheric).
7. In case of non-metallic solids:
• Thermal conductivity of porous materials depends upon the type of gas or liquid
present in the voids.
• Thermal conductivity of a damp material is considerably higher than that of the dry
material and water taken individually.
• Thermal conductivity increases with increase in density.
8. The Wiedemann and Franz law (based on experiment results), regarding thermal and elec-
trical conductivities of a material, states as follows: “The ratio of the thermal and
electrical conductivities is the same for all metals at the same temperature; and that the
ratio is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.”
k
Mathematically, š T
σ
k
or C (1.4)
σ
8
where, k = Thermal conductivity of metal at temperature T(K),
σ Electrical conductivity of metal at temperature T(K), and
©
C = Constant (for all metals) is referred to as Lorenz number
8
2.45 10 WΩ K2 ; Ωstands for ohms .
This law conveys that the materials which are good conductors of electricity are also
good conductors of heat.
Example 1.1
` `
The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 40 C and the outer surface is at 20 C. Calculate
the rate of heat transfer per unit area of wall surface; the wall is 250 mm thick and the
thermal conductivity of the brick is 0.52 W/m K.
Solution:
From equation (1.2)
Ak
Q˙ t t
x 1 2
therefore,
Q˙ 103 0.52 2
q˙ 40 20 41.6 W /m
A 250
Note that the symbol q˙ is used for the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
1.2.3 Thermal Resistance (Rth)

When two physical systems are described by similar equations and have similar boundary con-
ditions, these are said to be analogous. The heat transfer processes may be compared by
analogy with the flow of electricity in an electrical resistance. As the flow of electric current in
the electrical resistance is directly proportional to potential difference (dV) ; similarly heat
flow rate,Q, is directly proportional to temperature difference (dt), the driving force for heat
conduction through a medium.
As per Ohm’s law (in electric-circuit theory), we have
Potential difference (dV)

Current (I) Electrical resistance (R) (1.5)
By analogy, the heat flow equation (Fourier’s equation) may be written

as
(1.6)
dx
Temperature difference
Heat flow rate Q˙
(dt)
9
By comparing equations (1.5) and (1.6), we find that I is analogus to, Q˙ , dV is analogous to
dx dx
dt and R is analogous to the quantity . The quantity is called thermal conduction
resistance Rth cond. kA kA
(Figure 1.2) i.e., Rth cond. dx
kA
The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is called thermal
conductance.
It may be noted that rules for combining electrical resistances in
series and parallel apply equally well to thermal resistances.
The concept of thermal resistance is quite helpful white making
calculations for flow of heat.
Figure 1.2: Analogy of ther-
mal resistance to electrical
1.2.4 Heat Conduction Through Plane and Com- resistance.
posite Walls
Conduction through a plane wall

Referring to Figure 1.3 (a). Consider a plane wall of homogeneous material through which heat
is flowing only in x-direction.
Let, L = Thickness of the plane wall,

A = Cross-sectional area of the wall,
k = Thermal conductivity of the wall material, and
t1, t2 Temperatures maintained at the two faces 1 and 2 of the wall, respectively.
From equation (1.41), the general heat conduction equation in cartesian coordinates is given by:
∂ 2t ∂ 2t ∂ 2t
1 ∂t
qg
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 k α ∂τ
∂t
If
∂ tthe
∂ t ∂heat
t conduction takes place under the conditions, steady state 0 , one-dimensional
02and with no internal heat generation
2 2 q 0 then the above equation is
∂ ∂ k
reduced to: ∂
∂ 2t d2t
0 or 0 (1.7)
∂x 2 dx2
By integrating the above differential twice, we have
∂t
C1 and t C1x C2 (1.8)
∂
where C1 and C2 are the arbitrary constants. The values of these constants may be calculated
from the known boundary conditions as follows :
At x = 0 t = t1
10
Figure 1.3: Heat conduction through a plane wall.
At x = L t = t2
Substituting the values in the equation (1.8), we get t1 O C2 and t2 C1L C2 After simpli-
fication, we have, C2 t1 t2 t1
and C1
L
Thus, the equation (1.8) reduces to:
t2 t1 t1 (1.9)
t x
L
The equation (1.9) indicates that temperature distribution across a wall is linear and is
independent of thermal conductivity. Now heat through the plane wall can be found by using
Fourier’s equation, eqn. (1.9) as follows:
dt dt
Q kA , temperature gradient
dx dx
dt d t2 t1 t2 t1
But, x t
dx L L
Q kA t2 t1 kA t1 t2
L (1.10)
L
Equation (1.10) can be written as:
t1 t2 t1 t2
©
Q
(1.11)
L k RT
cond.
11
A
where, (RT cond. = Thermal resistance to heat conduction. Figure 1.3 (b) shows the equivalent
thermal circuit for heat flow through the plane wall.
Let us now find out the condition when instead of space, weight is the main criterion for
selection of the insulation of a plane wall.
Thermal resistance (conduction) of the wall, RT cond. L

kA
(i)
Mass of the wall, m ρA L (ii)
Eliminating L from eqn.(i) and eqn.(ii), we get
m ρA RT cond. kA ρ.k)A2. RT cond. (1.12)
The equation (1.12) stipulates the condition that, for a specified thermal resistance, the lightest
insulation will be one which has the smallest product of density (ρ) and thermal conductivity
(k).
Heat conduction through a composite wall

Referring Figure 1.4(a). Consider the transmission of heat through a composite wall consisting
of a number of slabs.
Let xA, xB, xC = Thicknesses of slabs A, B and C respectively (also called path lengths),
kA, kB, , kC, = Thermal conductivities of the slabs A, B and C respectively,
t1, t4 t1 % t4 = Temperatures at the wall surfaces 1 and 4 respectively, and
t2, t3 = Temperatures at the interfaces 2 and 3 respectively.
Figure 1.4: Steady state conduction through a composite wall.
12
Since the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time through each slab/layer is same, we have
kA A t1 t2 kB A t2 t3 kC A t3 t4
Q xA xC
xB
(Assuming that there is a perfect contact between the layers and no temperature drop occurs
across the interface between the materials).
Rearranging the above expression, we get
Q xA
t (i)
1 t2
kA A
Q xB
t (ii)
2 t3
kB A
Q˙ xC
t t (iii)
3 4
k A
C
Adding eqns.(i), (ii) and (iii), we have
xB xC
kB A kC A
t1 t4 Q˙ kA
xA
or,
Q˙ xAA t1xB t4 xC (1.13)
kA kB kC
and, Q˙ t1 t4 t1 t4
xB (1.14)
xC RA RB RC
xA
kA A kB A kC A
If the composite wall consists of n slabs/layers, then
t1 tn 1
n x
(1.15)
Q
< 1 kA
In order to solve more complex problems involving both series and parallel thermal
resistances, the electrical analogy may be used. A typical problem and its analogous electric
circuit are shown in Figure 1.5.
∆toverall
Q˙
<R T
(1.16)
Thermal contact resistance. In a composite (multi-layer) wall, the calculations of heat flow
are made on the assumptions: (i) The contact between the adjacent layers is perfect, (ii) At the
interface there is no fall of temperature, and (iii) At the interface the temperature is continuous,
although there is discontinuity in temperature gradient.
In real systems, however, due to surface roughness and void spaces (usually filled with air) the
contact surfaces touch only at discrete locations. Thus there is not a single plane of contact,
13
Figure 1.5: Series and parallel one-dimensional heat transfer through a composite wall and
electrical analog.
which means that the area available for the flow of heat at the interface will be small compared
to geometric face area. Due to this reduced area and presence of air voids, a large resistance to
heat flow at the interface occurs. This resistance is known as thermal contact resistance and it
causes temperature drop between two materials at the interface as shown in Figure 1.10.
Figure 1.6: Temperature drops
at the interfaces.
Referring Figure 1.10. The contact resistances are given by

t2 t 3
©
R and R
©
t4 t5
AB cond. BC cond.
Q A Q˙ A
Example 1.2
` `
The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 60 C and the outer surface is at 35 C.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer per m2 of surface
area of the wall, which is 220 mm thick.
`
The thermal
conductivity of the brick is 0.51 W/m C.
Solution:
Referring to Figure 1.7
Temperature of the inner surface of the wall, t1 60 C.`
Temperature of the outer surface of the wall, t2 35 C `
The thickness of the wall, L = 220 mm = 0.22 m
14
`
Thermal conductivity of the brick, k = 0.51 W/m C
Rate of heat transfer per m 2 , q˙
Rate of heat transfer per unit area,
Q˙
q˙ k t1 t2 0.51 60 35
A x 0.
57.95.W/m .2
Example 1.3
`
A reactor’s wall 320 mm thick, is made up of an` inner layer of fire brick (k = 0.84 W/m C)
covered
`
with a layer of insulation (k = 0.16
`
W/m C). The reactor operates at a temperature of
1325 C and the ambient temperature is 25 C.
(a) Determine the thickness of fire brick and insulation which gives minimum heat loss;
(b)Calculate the heat loss presuming that the insulating material has a maximum
temperature
`
of 1200 C;
(c)If the calculated heat loss is not acceptable, then state whether addition of another layer of
insulation would provide a satisfactory solution.
Solution:
Given:
t1 1325 C; `t2 1200 C, t3 25
`
C; `
xA xB x 320 mm or 0.32 m
or xB 0.32 `xA
kA 0.84W/m C;
kB 0.16W/m C. `
(a) Thickness of fire brick and insulation xA & xB:
The heat flux, under steady state conditions, is constant
throughout the wall and is same for each layer. Then for
unit area of wall from eqn.(1.13) Q˙
i.e., q˙
A
t1 t 4
xA xB xC Figure 1.8: The
kA kB kC a composite wallheat
for transfer
Examplethrough
1.3.
i.e., t1 t3 t1 t2 t2 t3
q˙ x x
A B x x
k k
k k A B
0.84 250.16
1325
Considering first two quantities, we have
xA xB
15
1325 1200
xA
0.84
xA 1300
5.25 0.32 xA 125 xA
or,
16
1300 125
or,
1.68 4.25xA x
or, 1300xA 125 1.68 4.25xA
and, xA 0.1146 m or 114.6 mm.
also, Thickness of insulation xB 320 114.6 205.4 mm.
(b) Heat loss per unit area, q:
©
Heat loss per unit area, t1 t2 1325 1200
0.1146 0.84 916.23 W/m .
2
xA
q kA
If another layer of insulating material is added, the heat loss from the wall will reduce ; conse-
quently the temperature drop across the fire brick lining will drop and the interface temperature
t2 will rise. As the interface temperature is already fixed. Therefore, a satisfactory solution will
not be available by adding layer of insulation.
Example 1.4
An exterior
`
wall of a house may be approximated by a 0.1 m layer of `common brick (k = 0.7
W/m C) followed by a 0.04 m layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.48 W/m C). `
Determine the thickness of loosely packed rock wool insulation (k = 0.065 W/m C) that should
be added to reduce the heat loss or (gain) through the wall by 80 per cent. Solution:
Given:
Thickness of common brick, xA = 0.1 m
Thickness of gypsum plaster,xB = 0.04 m
Thickness of rock wool, = xC (in m) = ?
Thermal conductivities: `
Common brick, kA = 0.7 W/m C`

Gypsum plaster, kB = 0.48 W/m`
C
Rock wool, kC = 0.065 W/m C
From eqn.(1.13) i.e., Q˙ t1 t4

q˙ A xA xB xC
k k k
Taking temperature difference to be ∆t in case,
Case I. Rock wool insulation not used:
A ∆t A ∆t
Q˙ 1 xA xB 0.1 0.04
k k 0 0.
Case II. Rock wool insulation used:
i.e., Q˙ xA A x∆Bt xC
kA kB kC
16
Figure 1.9: The heat transfer through
a composite wall for Example 1.4.
A ∆t
0.1 0.04 xC
0 0. 0.0
But Q˙ 2 1 0.8 Q˙ 1 0.2Q˙ 1
A ∆t A ∆t
0.2
0.1 0.04 xC 0.1 0.04
0 0. 0.0 0 0.
0.1 0.04 0.1 0.04 xC

0.2
0 0. 0 0. 0.0
or, 0.1428 0.0833 0.2 0.1428 0.0833 15.385x
and, 0.2261 0.2 0.2261 15.385x
thus, x 0.0588 m or 58.8 mm
Therefore, the thickness of rock wool insulation should be 58.8 mm.
Example 1.5
A furnace wall consists of 200 mm layer of refractory bricks, 6 mm layer of steel plate and a
`
100 mm layer of insulation bricks. The maximum temperature of the wall is 1150 C on the
`
furnace side and the minimum temperature is 40 C on the outermost side of the wall.
An accurate energy balance over the furnace shows that the heat loss from the wall is 400
W/m2. It is known that there is a thin layer of air between the layers of refractory bricks and
`
steel plate. Thermal conductivities for the three layers are 1.52, 45 and 0.138 W/m C
respectively. Evaluate:
(a) Number of millimetres of insulation brick equivalent to the air
layer, (b)the temperature of the outer surface of the steel plate
Solution:
Referring to Figure ??
Given:
Thickness of refractory bricks, xA = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Thickness of steel plate, xC = 6 mm = 0.006 m
Thickness of insulation bricks, xD = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Difference of temperature between the innermost and outermost side of the wall,
`
∆t 1150 40 1110 C
Thermal conductivities: kA = 1.52 W/m` C ; kB = kD = 0.138 W/m` C ; kC = 45 W/m` C

2
Heat loss from the wall, q = 400 W/m
17
Figure 1.10: Heat loss through
a composite wall for Example
1.5.
(a) The value of xB:

We know, from eqn.(1.15),
i.e., t1 tn 1
Q˙ n x
<
1 kA
or, A∆t ∆t
q˙
Q˙ or
< <xk
Q x A
k
1110 xA xB xC xD
i.e., 400 xA xB xC kA kB kC kD
k k k
1110 1110
©
i.e., 400
xA xB xC xD
0 .2 xB 1000 0.006 0.1
1 0.1 4 0.1
k k k k
1110 1110
0.1316 0.0072xB 0.00013 0.7246 0.8563 0.0072xB
1110
and, 0.8563 0.0072xB 2.775
4
i.e., xB 2.775 0.8563
266.5 mm.
0.0072
(b) Temperature of the outer surface of the steel plate tso:
q˙ 400 tso 40
xD
kD
tso 40
©
or, 400
1.38 tso 40
0.1 0.1
or, tso 400
38 `
40 329.8 C.
1.38
18
19
Example 1.6
Calculate the heat flow rate through the composite wall shown in Figure 1.11. Assume one
dimensional flow.
` ` `
k = 150 W/m C, k = 30 W/m C, k = 65 W/m C and
A ` B C
k D= 50 W/m C. Solution:
Given:
The thermal circuit for heat flow in the given
composite system (Figure 1.11) has been illustrated in
Figure 1.12. Thickness : xA = 3 cm = 0.03 m ; xB = xC =
8 cm = 0.08 m ; xD = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Areas: AA = 0.1 0.1 = 0.01 m2 ; AB = 0.1 0.03 = Figure 1.11: One dimensional heat
0.003 m2 flow through a composite slab for Ex-
AC = 0.1 0.07 = 0.007 m ; AD = 0.1 0.1 = 0.01 m
2 2 ample 1.6.
Heat flow rate, Q˙ :
The thermal resistances are given by equation,
L
RT cond.
kA
RT A xA 0.03
kAAA 150 0.01 0.02
RT B xB 0.08
k B AB 0.89
30 0.003
xC
RT C kCAC 0.03
0.176
xD 65 0.007
RT D kDAD 0.05
0.1
50 0.001
The equivalent thermal resistance for the parallel ther-
mal resistances RT B and RT C is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
RT RT C 0.89 0.176
eq RT B
1
R 0 147 Now, the total
thermal resistance is given
6.8 by RT total RT A RT eq
RT D 0.02 0.147 0.1 0.267
∆t overall
400 60
RT total 1273.4 W
0.267
Figure 1.12: One dimensional heat
flow through a composite slab for Ex-
ample 1.6.
1.2.5 The Overall Heat-transfer Coeffi-
cient
Newton’s law of cooling
20
In order to consider the rate at which heat is
transferred from one fluid to another through a plane
wall it is necessary to know something of the way in
which heat is transferred from a solid surface to a fluid
and vice versa.
Newton’s law of cooling states that the heat transfer
from a solid surface of area A, at a temperature tw, to a fluid of temperature t, is given by
Q˙ αA tw t (1.17)
where α is called the heat transfer coefficient. The units of α are seen to be W /m2 K, or kW
/m2 K. The heat transfer coefficient, α, depends on the properties of the fluid and on the fluid
velocity; it is usually necessary to evaluate it by experiment. This will be discussed more fully
in later section studies.
Equation (1.17) does not include the heat loss from the surface by radiation. This effect can
be calculated separately, and in many cases is negligible compared with the heat transferred by
conduction and convection from the surface to the fluid. When the surface temperature is high,
or when the surface loses heat by natural convection, then the heat transfer due to radiation is
of a similar magnitude to that lost by convection.
Figure 1.13: Temperature variation for heat
transfer from one fluid to another through a
dividing wall.
Consider the transfer of heat from a fluid A to a fluid B through a dividing wall of thickness
x, and thermal conductivity, λ , as shown in Figure 1.13. The variation of temperature in the
direction of the heat transfer is also shown. In fluid A the temperature decreases rapidly from
tA to t1 in the region of the wall, and similarly in fluid B the temperature decreases rapidly from
t2 to tB in the region of the wall. In most practical cases the fluid temperature is approximately
constant throughout its bulk, apart from a thin film near the solid surface bounding the fluid.
The dotted lines drawn on Figure 1.13 show that the thickness of this film of fluid is given by
δA for fluid A and δB for fluid B. The heat transfer in these films is by conduction only, hence
applying equation (1.10) we have, considering unit surface area, from fluid A to the wall.
kA
q˙. tA t1 (a)
δ
from the wall to fluid B
q˙. t2 tB (b)
kB
δB
21
Also from equation (1.17), from fluid A to the wall
q˙ αA tA t1 (c)
from the wall to fluid B
q˙ α B t2 tB (d)
Comparing equations (a) and (c), and equations (b) and (d), it can be seen that
kA kB
αA and αB
δA δB
k
In general, α , where δ is the thickness of the stagnant film of fluid on the surface.
δ
The heat flow through the wall in Figure 1.13 is given by equation (1.10).
k
i.e., for unit surface area,q˙. t1 t2
x
For steady-state heat transfer, the heat flowing from fluid A to the wall is equal to the heat
flowing through the wall, which is also equal to the heat flowing from the wall to fluid B. If
this were not so, then the temperatures tA, t1 , t2 and tB would not remain constant but would
change with time.
We therefore have
k
q˙ αA tA t1 t1 t2 α B t2 tB
x
Rewriting these equations in terms of the temperatures, then
α
q˙ q˙kx α
q˙
tA t1 ; t1 t2 ; t2 tB
Hence adding the corresponding sides of the three equations
q˙α q˙λx αq˙

tA t1 t1 t2 t2 tB
α1 kx α1
tA tB q˙
t t
A
i.e.,
By analogy with equation (1.17) this can be written as,

q˙
©
1 αA x/k ©
1 αB
(1.18)
q˙ U tA tB (1.19)
Q˙ UA tA tB (1.20)
22
1 1 x 1
where, (1.21)
U α k α
U is called the overall heat transfer coefficient, and it has the same units as α.
23
Example 1.7
`
A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10 mm contains water at 90 C when the atmospheric tem-
`
perature is 15 C. The thermal conductivity of mild steel is 50 W/mK, and the heat transfer
coefficients for the inside and outside of the tank are 2800 and 11 W /m2K respectively.
Calcu- late:
(a) the rate of heat loss per unit area of tank surface;
(b) the temperature of the outside and inside surface of the tank.
Solution:
(a) the rate of heat loss;
The wall of the tank is shown diagrammatically in Fig-
ure 1.14.
From equation1(1.21),
i.e., 1 x 1 1 1 1
U αA k αB 2800 103 50 11
0.000357 0.0002 0.0909
1
0.0915
U substituting in equation (1.19),
Then
q˙ U tA 15 tB , we
90
q˙ 820 W/m2
0.0915
i.e., Rate of heat loss per square metre of surface area 0.82 k W
Fi g ure 1.14: Tank wall for
(b) temperature of the outside surface; Example 1.7.
From equation (1.17),
i.e., q˙ α t2 tB
or, 820 11 t2 15
where t2 is the temperature of the outside surface of the tank as shown in Figure 1.14.
820 `
and, 15 89.6 C
1
i.e., Temperature of outside surface of tank 89.6 C `
3
Also, k 820 10 10
q˙ t t or t 89.6 90.3 C `
x 1 2 1
1
`
i.e., 90.3 C
24
The composite wall with fluid film boundaries and the further electrical
analogy
There are many cases in practice when different materials are constructed in layers to form a
composite wall. An example of this is the wall of a building, which usually consists of a layer
of plaster, a row of bricks, an air gap, a second row of bricks, and perhaps a cement rendering
on the outside surface.
Consider the general case of a composite wall as shown in Figure 1.14. There are n layers of
material of thickness x1 , x2 , x3 , etc. and of thermal conductivity k 1 , k2 , k3 , etc. On one side
of the composite wall there is a fluid A at temperature tA, and the heat transfer coefficient from
fluid to wall is αA; on the other side of the composite wall there is a fluid B, and the heat
transfer coefficient from wall to fluid is αB. Let the temperature of the wall in contact with
fluid A be t0 and the temperature of the wall in contact with fluid B be tB; the interface
temperatures are then t1, t2, t3, etc. as shown. The most convenient method of solving such a
problem is by making use of an electrical analogy as seen earlier. The flow of heat can be
thought of as analogous to an electric current. The heat flow is caused by a temperature
difference whereas the current flow is caused by a potential difference, hence it is possible to
postulate a thermal resistance analogous to an electrical resistance. From Ohm’s law we have,
V
V IR or I
R
where V is the potential difference, I the current, and R the resistance.
Figure 1.15: Heat transfer through
a composite wall.
Comparing this equation with equation (1.2), Q˙ kA/x t1 t2 , we

have,
x (1.22)
Thus, thermal resistance, R
kA
where Q˙ is analogous to I, and t1 t2 is analogous to V.
The composite wall is analogous to a series of resistances, as shown in Figure 1.15, and resis-
tances in series can be added to give the total resistance. To find the resistance of a fluid film it
is necessary to compare Ohm’s law with equation (1.17) Q˙ αA tw t ,
25
1
i.e., Thermal resistance of a fluid film, R (1.23)
α
where, Q˙ is analogous to I and tw t is analogous to V. Note that the units of thermal
resistance are K/W or K/kW.
Referring to Figure 1.15, we therefore have,
1 x1 x1
RA , R1 , R1 , etc.
αAA k1A k1A
xn 1
R n knA and RB α
B
The total resistance to heat flow is then,
1 x1 xn
RT RA R1 R2 Rn RB 1
α k1A
A kn αA
B
Or for any number of layers of material,
1
Total resistance, RT x 1
α
A A
=kA αB A
(1.24)
It can be seen from equation (1.24) that in this case the surface area, A, remains constant
through the wall, and it is usual to calculate the total resistance for unit surface area in such
problems. Cases in which the area varies through the various layers are considered later.
Using the electrical analogy for the overall heat transfer we have,
˙Q A tARtBT (1.25)
(analogous to I = V/R ).
In equation (1.21) the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is defined as
1 1 x 1
U αA k αB
For any number of walls we have
1
U α
1
=k x α1
It can be seen that the reciprocal of U is simply the thermal resistance for unit area,
1 1
i.e., (1.26)
RT A or U
U R TA
If the inner and outer wall surface temperatures are known then the heat transfer can be found by
calculating the thermal resistance of the composite wall only,
26
x
i.e., R
kA
The overall heat transfer coefficient from one wall surface to the other is given by,
1 x
U
=k
It should be noted that there may be an additional thermal resistance at the various interfaces of
a composite wall, due to the small pockets of air trapped between the surfaces.
Example 1.8
The interior of a refrigerator `having inside dimensions of 0.5 m 0.5 m base area and 1 m
height, is to be maintained at 6 C.`The walls of the refrigerator are constructed of two mild steel
`
sheets 3 mm thick (k = 46.5 W/m C) with 50 mm of glass wool insulation (k = 0.046 W/m C)
between them. If the average heat transfer coefficients at the inner and outer surfaces are 11.6
` `
W/m2 C and 14.5 W/m2 C respectively, calculate:
(a) The rate at which heat must be removed from the interior to maintain the specified
`
temperature in the kitchen at 25 C, and
(b) The temperature on the outer surface of the metal sheet.
Solution:
Referring to Figure 1.16 Given:
xA = xC = 3 mm = 0.003 m;
xB = 50 mm = 0.05 m; ` `
kA = kC = 46.5 W/m C ; k = 0.046 W/m C;
` B `
h = 11.6 W/m2 C ; h = 14.5 W/m2 C ;
0 ` ` i
t = 25 C ; t i= 6 C.
0
The total area through which heat is coming into the refrigerator
A 0.5 0.5 2 0.5 1 4 2.5 m2
Figure 1.16: Heat leaks through re-

frigerator insulation for Example
1.8.
27
(a) The rate of removal of heat, Q˙ :
© ©
From eqn. (1.18)
i.e., q˙ t t
1 αA A x/K 1 αB
And for this case,
Q˙
© © © © ©
1 α x K Ax t K
0 A A t 0B Bi
x K
C C
1 α
i
2.5 25 6
11.6
46.5 0.046 46.5 14.5 38.2
0. 0 0.0
(b) The temperature at the outer surface of the metal sheet, t1:
From eqn. (1.17),
i.e., Q˙ αA tw t
Here,
Q˙ αA 25 t1
or, 38.2 11.6 2.5 25 t1
and, t1 382 23.68 C.
25 `
116 2.5
Example 1.9
A furnace wall consists of 125 mm wide refractory brick and 125 mm wide insulating firebrick
separated by an air gap. The outside` wall is covered with a 12 mm thickness of plaster. The
`
inner surface of the wall is at 1100 C and the room temperature is 25 C. The heat transfer
coefficient from the outside wall surface to the air in the room is 17 W/m2K, and the resistance
to heat flow of the air gap is 0.16 K/W. The thermal conductivities of refractory brick,
insulating firebrick, and plaster are 1.6, 0.3, and 0.14 W/mK, respectively. Calculate:
(a) the rate of heat loss per unit area of wall surface;
(b)the temperature at each interface throughout the
wall; (c)the temperature at the outside surface of the
wall.
Solution:
(a) rate of heat loss per unit area, q˙
The wall is shown in Figure 1.17. Consider 1 m2 of surface area. Then using equation (1.22),
i.e., x
R˙ kA
,
Thus,
125
Resistance of refractory brick 0.0781 K/W
103
1.6
28
Figure 1.17: Composite wall for Example
1.9.
125
Resistance of insulating firebrick 0.417 K/W
103 1.6
125
Resistance of plaster 0.0857 K/W
10 3
1.6
Also, using equation (1.23) for a fluid film,
1
i.e., R
α
1
and, Resistance of air film on outside surface K/W
1
Hence,
1
Total resistance, RT 0.0781 0.417 0.0857 0.16
1
where the resistance of the air gap is 0.16 K/W,
i.e., RT 0.8 K/W
Then using equation (1.25)
i.e., tA tB
RT
Q˙
1100 25
1344 W
0.8
Then, Rate of heat loss per square metre of surface area 1.344kW
(b) temperature at each interface; Referring to Figure 1.17, the interface temperatures are t1
, t2 , and t3; the outside surface is at t4. Applying the electrical analogy to each layer and using
the values of thermal resistance calculated above, we have,
Q˙ 1344 1100 t1
0.0781
i.e., t1
29
`
1100 1344 0.0781 995 C
30
Also, t1 t2
Q˙ 1344 0.16
i.e., t2
`
995 0.16 1344 780 C
Again, t2 t3
Q˙ 1344 0.417
i.e., t3
`
780 1344 0.417 220 C
And, t3 t4
Q˙ 1344 0.0857
i.e., t4 220 1344 0.0857 104 C `
(c) temperature at the outside surface; The temperature t4 can also be found by considering
the air film,
©
i.e., t4 25
Q˙ 1344
1 17
1
or, t 17
1344 254
and, t4 104.1 `C
Temperature at outside surface of wall 104.1 C`
Example 1.10
A furnace wall is made up of three layers of thicknesses 250 mm, 100 mm and 150 mm
`
with thermal conductivities of 1.65, k and 9.2 W/m C respectively. The inside is exposed to
` `
gases at 1250 C with a convection coefficient of 25 W/m2 C and the inside surface is at
` ` `
1100 C, the outside surface is exposed air at 25 C with convection coefficient of 12 W/m2 C.
Determine:
(a) The unknown thermal conductivity
‘k’; (b)The overall heat transfer
coefficient; (c)All surface temperatures.
Solution:
xA = 250 mm 0.25 m; xB = 100 mm = 0.1` m;
xC = 150 mm = 0.15 m ; kA = 1.65 W/m C;
31
` ` `
k = 9.2 W/m C ; t = 1250 C ; t = 1100 C
C h 1
2`
hh = 25 W/m2 `C; hc = 12 W/m C
(a) Thermal conductivity, k (= kB):
32
Figure 1.18: Composite furnace wall for
Example 1.10.
The rate of heat transfer per unit area of the furnace wall is obtained from eqn.(1.17),
i.e., q˙ α t2 tB
here,
q˙ αh th t1
25 1250 1100 3750 W/m2
Also, from equation (1.25)
tA tB
q˙
In this case, RT
∆t overall
q˙
RT
total
t t
Rth conv. h Rth A Rth B Rhth C Rth conv. c
i.e., 3750
© © © © ©
1 αh xA KA
1250 25
xB KB xC KC
1225
1 αc
or, 3750
1 0.25 0.1 0.15 1
2 1. K 9 1
0.1 1225 0.1
0.04 0.1515 0.0163 0.0833 1225
0.2911
K KB
0.1
or, 3750 0.2911 1225
K
0.1 1225
and, 0.2911 0.0355
KB 3750
thus, KB 01
K . 2.817 W/m C.
0.0355
33
(b) The overall transfer coefficient, U:
1
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U
Rth total
1 0.25 0.1 0.15 1

Now, Rth total
2 1. 2.8 9 1
0.04 0.1515
U
0.0355
1
Rth total
0.0163
1
0.3266
0.0833
3.06 W/m2 C.
0.3266 C m2 W
`
`
©
(c) Surface temperatures ; t1, t1, t1, t1:
q qA qB qC
or, 3750
t1 t2 t2 t3 t3 t4
©
x
© © ©
i.e, 3750 x x kC C
1110 t2 1100 3750 0.25 531.8 C
or t k kB B
`
A A
0.25 1.65 2 1.65
Similarly, 3750
©
531.8 t3 531.8 3750 0.1 398.6 C
or t `
0.1 2.817 3 2.817
and, 3750
©
398.6 t4
0.15 9
0.15 `
or, t4 398.6 3750 337.5 C
9.2.2
©
337.5
Check using outside convection,q˙
25 3750 W/m2
1
hc 337.5 25
12
1.2.6 Heat flow through a cylinder and a sphere

One of the most commonly occurring problems in practice is the case of heat being transferred
through a pipe or cylinder. Less common is the case of heat being transferred through a
spherical wall, but both cases will now be considered.
The cylinder
34
Consider a cylinder of internal radius r1 , and external radius r2 as shown in Figure 1.19. Let the
inside and outside surface temperatures be t1 and t2 , respectively. Consider the heat flow
through
35
a small element, thickness dr, at any radius r, where the temperature is t. Let the conductivity of
the material be k. Then applying equation (1.1), for unit length in the axial direction,
i.e., dt
Q˙ k A k 2πr 1
dt d
or,
dx
dr
Q˙
r
2πkdt
Integrating between the inside and outside sur-
faces,
Q˙ D
r2 dr
r r
2πk
t
t2
D
dt
where
and k are both constant
Q˙
rr
2
Then, Q˙ ln 2πk t2 t1 2πk t1 t2
and,
Now from equation (1.2),

Q˙
2πk t1 t2
ln r r © (1.27)
2
Ak
i.e., Q˙ t1 t2
x
If we substitute a mean area Am in this equa-
tion, and substitute also for the thickness x = Figure 1.19: Cross-section through a cylinder.
r2 r1 , we have
i.e., kA m t1 t2
Q˙
r r
2
Comparing this equation with equation (1.27),
kA
r2 r 1
t1 t2
ln r2 r1
2πk t1
©
©
m
Q˙ Am
2π
or,
r2 r1
ln 2r 1r
and, 2π r2 r1 A2 A1
l
©
2 1
A 2
m 1
©
r r ln r
Here Am is called the logarithmic mean area, and using this area in equation (1.2) an exact
solution is obtained. It can be seen from the above that there is also a logarithmic mean radius
given by, r
rm 2π r2 r1
ln r r
36
©
2 1
In the case of a composite cylinder (e.g. a metal pipe with several layers of lagging) the most
convenient approach is again that of the electrical analogy; by using equation (1.22)
37
x
i.e., thermal resistance, R
kA
where x is the thickness of a layer, and Am is the logarithmic mean area for that layer.
©
From equation (1.27), applying the electrical analogy (I= V/R), it can be seen that,
ln r2 r1
R 2 (1.28)
The film of fluid on the inside and outside surfaces can be treated as before using equation (1.23),
1
i.e., Routside
α 0
where A0 is the outside surface area, 2πr2 , referring to Figure 1.19, and α0 is the heat transfer
coefficient for the outside surface.
1
Also, Rinside
α i
where Ai is the inside surface area, 2πr1 and αi is the heat transfer coefficient for the inside
surface.
It can be seen from equation (1.27),
©
i.e., 2πk t1 t2
Q˙
ln r r
© ©
©
tr2hat
r1 . the
Theheat transfer
smaller rate depends
the ratio, r2 r1 , thenonthe
thehigher
ratio isofthe
2the radii, r2 r1 , and not on the
heat flow for the same temperature
difference.
thickness In manythickness
differenceor lagging practical is
problems the ratio,
usually small r r , tends
compared towards
with the mean unity since
radius. the pipe-
In these cases it
is a sufficiently close approximation to use the arithmetic mean radius,
wall2 1
i.e., Arithmetic mean radius r2 r1

2
©
The error in the rate of heat transfer in using the arithmetic mean instead of the logarithmic
mean is just over 4% for a ratio r2 r1 2. Most heat transfer experiments in practice cannot give
©
better accuracy than about 4 or 5%, hence it is a good approximation to use the arithmetic
mean area when r2 r1 $ 2.
Heat conduction through a composite cylinder

Consider flow of heat through a composite cylinder as shown in Figure 1.20.
38
Let,th The temperature of the hot fluid flowing inside the cylinder,
tc The temperature of the cold fluid (atmospheric air),
kA Thermal conductivity of the inside layer A,
kB Thermal conductivity of the outside layer B,
t1, t2, t3 Temperature at the points 1, 2 and 3 (see Figure 1.20.),
l = Length of the composite cylinder, and
αh, αc Inside and outside heat transfer coefficients.
Figure 1.20: Cross-section of a

composite cylinder.
The rate of heat transfer is given by,
©
Q˙ α
2πr lt kA 2πl t1 t2
h 1 h t1 ln r r
2 1
©
kB 2πl t23 t3 2
αc 2πr3 l t3 tc
ln r r Q˙ l, (i)
Rearranging the above expression, we get 2πr1
th t1
t hh
Q˙
1 t2 kA 2πl (ii)
ln r2 r1
t2 t3 ©Q˙
kB 2πl
ln r3 r2
(iii)
39 ©
t3 tc
Q˙
c (iv)
h 2πr3 l
Z
Adding equations (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we have,
[
Q˙
^ _ 1 1 1
^\^ © © _]
A B
1
2πl h r
h1
k k hc r 3
th tc
ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2
Q˙ Z^ [ _ 2πl th tc
^^ © © __ 1
hh r1
1
k
1
k
1
hc r3
Q˙
\ ] ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2
© ©
2 π l th t c
(1.29)
ln rk2 r1 ln rk3 r2 hc r13
1hh r1 A B
If there are ‘n’ concentric cylinders, then
Q˙
r ©x
2πl th tc (1.30)
n
1 1
hh r 1
<k
n n ln rn 1 rn
h c
1
r 3
If inside the outside heat transfer coefficients are not considered then the above equation can be
written as,
©
2πx t1 t n 1
Q˙ nn
< 1k ln r
n1
n
n 1 rn
Example 1.4
`
A steel pipe of 100 mm bore and 7 mm wall thickness, carrying steam at 260 C, is insulated
with 40 mm of a moulded high-temperature diatomaceous earth covering, this covering in turn
insulated with 60 mm of asbestos felt.
`
The atmospheric temperature is 15 C. The heat transfer coefficients for the inside and outside
surfaces are 550 and 15 W /m2K respectively, and the thermal conductivities of steel, diatoma-
ceous earth, and asbestos felt are 50, 0.09, and 0.07 W/mK respectively.
Calculate:
(a) the rate of heat loss by the steam per unit length of
pipe; (b)the temperature of the outside surface.
40
Solution:
(a) the rate of heat loss;

A cross-section of the pipe is shown in Figure 1.21.
Consider 1 m length of the pipe. From equation
1
(1.23), i.e., R
α
103
and, Resistance of steam film 0.00579 K/W
550 2π 50 1
From equation (1.28), for the steel pipe,
ln r2 r1 Figure 1.21: Cross-

i.e.,
© ©
2πk section through an in-
sulated cylinder for Ex-
R
ln 57 50 ample 1.4.
Resistance of pipe 0.000417 K/W
©
2π
ln 97 57
Similarly, Resistance of diatomaceous earth 0.94 K/W
©
2π
ln 157 97
and, Resistance of asbestos felt 2π 1.095 K/W
From equation (1.23), for the air film on the outside surface
1 103
Resistance of air film 0.0675 K/W
αA 15 2π 157 1
Hence, Total resistance, RT 0.00579 0.000417 0.94 1.095 0.0675 2.1087 K/W
Note that the resistance to heat flow of the pipe metal is very small; also in this case the
resistance of the film on the inside surface is very small because the heat transfer coefficient
for steam is high.
Then, using equation (1.25)
i.e., tA tB
Q˙
RT
260 15
116 W
2.1087
thus, Rate of heat loss per metre length of pipe 116 W
41
(b) the temperature of the outside surface;
Using the electrical analogy for the air film we have
t 15
also, Q˙ 116 0.0675
where, t is the temperature of the outside surface
`
or, t 116 0.0675 15 22.8 C
`
Hence, Temperature of outside surface 22.8 C
Example 1.5
A thick walled tube of stainless steel with 20 mm
inner diameter and 40 mm outer diameter is cov-
ered with a 30 mm layer of asbestos insulation (k
= `
0.2 W/m C). If the inside` wall temperature of the
pipe is maintained
`
at 600 C and the outside insu-
lation at 1000 C, calculate the heat loss per metre
of length.
Solution:
Given,
20
r1 = = 10 mm = 0.01 m
402
r2 = = 20 mm = 0.02 m
2
r3 = 20 +`30 = 50 mm `= 0.05 m `
t = 600 C, t = 1000 C, k = 0.2 W/m C
1 3 B
Heat transfer per metre of length, Q/l: Figure 1.22: Cross-section through an insu-
From equation, lated cylinder for Example 1.5.
Q © 2πl t t
lnh r2 rc1
kA
©
ln r3 r2
kB
and since the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is not given, then resistance offered by
stainless steel to heat transfer across the tube is neglected,
©
i.e., Q˙ 2π th tc
l
ln krB r
Q˙ 2π 600 1000
3 548.57 W/m
i.e.,
l
©
ln 0.2
Negative sign indicates that the heat transfer takes place radially inward.
0.05 0.02
42
Example 1.6
`
Hot air at a temperature of 65 C is flowing through a steel pipe of 120 mm diameter. The pipe
is covered with two layers of different insulating materials of thickness
`
60 mm and 40 mm, and
their corresponding thermal conductivities`
are 0.24 and 0.4 W/m C. The
`
inside and outside heat
transfer coefficients are 60 and 12 W/m C. The atmosphere is at 20 C. Determine the rate of
heat loss from 60 m length of pipe.
Solution:
Figure 1.23: Cross-

section of a composite
cylinder for Example 1.6.
Given:
120
r1 = = 60 mm = 0.06 m
2
r2 = 60 + 60 mm = 120 mm = 0.12 m
r3 = 60 + 60 + 40= 160 mm = 0.16 m
` `
t = 65 C; t = 20 C
h ` c `
k = 0.24 W/m
2` C; k = 0.4 W/m2 `C
A B
hh = 60 W/m C; hc = 12 W/m C.
Length of pipe, l = 60 m
Rate of heat loss, Q:

Rate of heat loss as given by (1.29);
Q˙
1
hh r1 kA
©
2 π l th t c
ln r2 r1 ©
ln r3 r2
kB
1
hc r3
43
1
60 0.06
©
2π 60 65 20
ln 0.12 0.06
0.24
©
ln 0.16 0.12
0.4
1
12 0.16
16964.6
3850.5 W
0.2777 2.8881 0.7192 0.5208
i.e., Rate of heat loss 3850.5 W
Example 1.7
A 150 mm steam pipe has inside dimater of 120 mm and outside diameter of 160 mm. It is
`
insulated at the outside with asbestos. The steam temperature is 150 C and the air temperature
` ` ` `
is 20 C. h (steam side) = 100 W/m2 C, h (air side) = 30 W/m2 C, k (asbestos) = 0.8 W/m C
`
and k (steel) = 42 W/m C. Calculate the thickness of the asbestos to be provided in order to
limit the heat losses to 2.1 kW/m2.
Solution:
Figure 1.24: Cross-section of

a composite cylinder for
Exam- ple 1.7.
Given:
120
r1 = = 60 mm = 0.06 m
1602
r2 = = 80 mm = 0.08 m
2
` `
t = 150 C; t = 20 C
h ` c `
k = 42 W/m C; 2` k = 0.8 W/m2 C`
A B
hh = 100 W/m C; hc = 30 W/m C.
Heat loss = 2.1 kW/m2
Thickness of insulation (asbestos), (r3 - r2):
44
Area for heat transfer 2πrL where L = length of the pipe
Heat loss 2.1 2πrL kW
2.1 2π 0.075 L 0.989L kW
0.989L 10 3watts
150
where r, mean radius 75 mm or 0.075 m Given
2
Heat transfer rate in such a case is given by (1.29);
i.e., Q˙
1hh r1 kA
©
2πL th tc
ln r2 r1 ©
ln r3 r2
kB
1
hc r3
Substituting,
0.989L
103
1
100 0.06
©
2π L 150 20
ln 0.08 0.06
42
ln r3 0.08 ©
0.8
1
30 r3
©
816.81
also, 0.989 103
ln r3 0.08 1
©
0.16666 0.00685
0 3
ln r3 0.08 1 816.81
or, 0.16666 0.00685 0.6524
0 3 0.989 10 3
or, ©
1.25 ln r3 0.08
1
3
0.6524 0
Solving by hit and trial, we get
r3 0.105 m or 105 mm
Thickness of insulation r3 r2 105 80 25 mm.
The sphere
Consider a hollow sphere of internal radius r 1 and external radius r2 , as shown in Figure 1.25.
Let the inside and outside surface temperatures be t 1 and t2, and let the thermal conductivity be
k.
45
Consider a small element of thickness dr at any
radius r. It can be shown that the surface area of
this spherical element is given by 4πr2 Then,
using equation (1.1),
˙
i.e., k Q dx
A dt
dt dt
or, Q˙ kA k4πr2
dr dr
Separating variables and Integrating,
t2
E
Q˙ r1 r
2
4πk E dt
t1
Figure 1.25: Steady state conduction

r1 r1
, Q˙ 4πk t2 through a hollow
Q˙ r
t1
r 2
or, 4πk t1 t2
r1r2
and, 4πk r1 r2 t1 t2 t1 t2 (a)

Q˙
r2 r 1 r2 r1
4πkr1r2
Hence applying the electrical analogy, (I = V/R), we
have,
r2 r1
R (1.31)
4πkr1r2
If a mean area, Am, is introduced, then from equation (1.2),
i.e., Ak
Q˙ x t1 t2
kAm kA m t1 t2
then, Q˙ t (b)
t 12
x r
Comparing the equations (a) and (b) above, we have
Am 4πr1r2 r1
A mean radius, rm, can be defined,
Õ
i.e., Am 4πr2 4πr1r2
m
Mean radius, rm r1r2
46
It can be seen that rm is a geometric mean radius.
Example 1.8
47
A spherical shaped vessel of 1.4 m diameter is 90 mm
thick. Establish the rate of heat leakage, if the temper-
ature
`
difference between the inner and outer surfaces is
220 C.
Thermal conductivity of the material of the sphere is
`
0.083 W/m C.
Solution:
Given:
1.4
r1 = = 0.7 m
2
90
r2 = 0.7 - = 0.61 m Figure 1.26: Steady state conduction
1000
` `
t - t = 200 C; k A = 0.083 W/m C; through a sphere for Example 1.8.
1 2
The rate of heat transfer/leakage is given by equation
(a),
i.e., 4πkr1 r2 t1 t2
Q˙ r r
2
4π 0.083 0.61 0.7 220
0.7 1088.67 W
0.61
thus, Rate of heat leakage 1088.67 W.
Heat conduction through a composite sphere;

Considering Figure 1.27 as cross-section of a composite sphere, the heat flow equation can be
written as follows:
4πkA r1r2 t1 t2 4πkB r2 r3 t1 t3

i.e., Q˙ 4πr2 t h t1 αc 4πr t 3 tc
2
αh
r r
1 r r 3
3
2
By rearranging the above equation, we have
th t1 Q˙
2
α (i)
h 4πr1
Q˙ r2 r1
t 12
t (ii)
4πk A
Q˙ r3 r2
t t
(iii)
23
4πk B
Q˙
tt (iv)
3 c c 4πr32
α
48
Figure 1.27: Steady state conduction through
a composite sphere.
Adding equations (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we get,

Q˙ 1
r2 r 1 r3 r2 1
αh
A
4π 2k
1 rr krr th tc
B 2 αc 2
Q˙
4 π th tc
1 r2 r 1 r3 r 2 1
α h r1 2 kA k 3
αc r2
If there are n concentric spheres then the above equation can be written as follows :
Q˙
|
4π th tc
(1.32)
αh1 1
nn
n v knrnrn1 rrnn 1 αc
1
If inside the outside heat transfer coefficients are not considered, then the above equation can be
n
written as,
4π t1 tn 1
Q˙
(1.33)
nn
< rn 1 rn
kn rn rn 1
n
Example 1.9
A small hemispherical oven is built of an inner layer of insulating firebrick 125 mm thick, and
49
`
an outer covering of 85% magnesia 40 mm thick. The inner surface of the oven is at 800 C and
`
the heat transfer coefficient for the outside surface is 10 W/m2K; the room temperature is 20 C.
Calculate the rate of heat loss through the hemisphere if the inside radius is 0.6 m.
50
Take the thermal conductivities of firebrick and 85% magnesia as 0.31 and 0.05 W/mK respec-
tively.
Solution:
from equation (1.31), for a hemisphere,
r2 r1
i.e., R
4πkr1r2
For the insulating firebrick:
0.125
Resistance of firebrick
2 0.31 0.6 0.725
0.1478 K/W π
For the 85% magnesia
0.04
Resistance of 85%magnesia
2 π 0.05 0.725 0.765
0.2295 K/W
For the outside surface: from equation (1.23)
1
i.e., Thermal resistance of a fluid film, R Figure 1.28: Cross-section through
α a composite hemisphere for Example
1.8.
Thus, Resistance of outside air film 10 2π 0.7652
0.0272 K/W
Hence, Total resistance, RT 0.1478 0.2295 0.0272
0.4045 K/W
Then using equation (1.25)
i.e., ˙ tA RtBT
Q
and, 800 20
Q˙ 1930 W
0.4045
thus, Rate of heat loss from the oven 1.93 kW
1.2.7 General Heat Conduction Equation in Cartesian Coordinates

Consider an infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped (volume element) of sides dx, dy and dz
parallel, respectively, to the three axes (X, Y, Z) in a medium in which temperature is varying
with location and time as shown in Figure 1.29.
51
Let, t = Temperature at the left face ABCD; this temperature may be assumed uniform
over the entire surface, since the area of this face can be made arbitrarily small.
dt
Temperature changes and rate of change along X-direction.
dx
∂t
Then, dx Change of temperature through distance dx, and t
∂
∂t
∂ dx Temperature on the right face EFGH
(at distance dx from the left face ABCD).
Further, let, kx, ky, kz Thermal conductivities

(direction characteristics of the material) along X, Y and Z
axes.
Figure 1.29: Elemental volume for three-dimensional heat conduction analysis-Cartesian co-
ordinates.
If the directional characteristics of a material are equal/same, it is called an “Isotropic material”

and if unequal/different ‘Anisotropic material’. q˙ g Heat generated per unit volume per unit
time. Inside the control volume there may be heat sources due to flow of electric current in
electric mo- tors and generators, nuclear fission etc.
[ Note: q˙ g may be function of position or time, or both].
ρ = Mass density of material.
c = Specific heat of the material.
Energy balance/equation for volume element:
Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the coordinate directions
considered (A) + heat generated within the element (B) = Energy stored in the element (C)
52
Let, Q = Rate of heat flow in a direction, and
Q˙ ’ Q˙ dτ Total heat flow (flux) in that direction (in time dτ .
A. Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the directions
considered:
Quantity of heat flowing into the element from the left face ABCD during the time interval dτ
in X-direction is given by:
x x
∂∂ t
Heat influx Q˙
¬
k dy.dz dτ (i)
During the same time interval dτ the heat flowing out of the right face of control volume (EFGH)
will be:
Heat efflux ∂
Q˙ Q˙ dx
¬ ¬
(ii)
Q˙
¬ x x
x
∂
Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction,
x x ˙ ∂
dQ˙ Q∂˙ x Q˙ dx
¬ ¬ ¬ ¬
xQ substracting (ii) from

x
∂
Q˙x dx
¬
(i)
∂
∂ ∂t
kx dy.dz dτ dx
∂x ∂
∂ ∂t
kx dx dy dz dτ (1.34)
∂ ∂
Similarly, the heat accumulated due to heat flow by conduction along Y and Z directions in time
dτ will be:
∂ ∂t
ky dx dy dz dτ (1.35)
∂ ∂
∂ ∂t
dx dy dz dτ kz (1.36)
∂ ∂
Net heat accumulated in the element due to conduction of heat from all the co-ordinate
directions considered,
∂ ∂t ∂ ∂t ∂ ∂t
kx dx dy dz dτ ky dx dy dz dτ kz dx dy dz dτ
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∂∂ ∂∂t ∂∂ ∂∂t ∂ ∂∂ t
kx ky kz dx dy dz dτ (1.37)
B. Total heat generated within the element (Q˙ g ):

53
The total heat generated in the element is given
by:
54
¬
Qg g dx dy dz dτ (1.38)
q˙
C. Energy stored in the element:
The total heat accumulated in the element due to heat flow along coordinate axes (equation
(1.37)) and the heat generated within the element (equation (1.38)) together serve to increase
the thermal energy of the element/lattice. This increase in thermal energy is given by:
∂t
ρ dx dy dz c dτ (1.39)
∂
Heat stored in the body = Mass of the body

specific heat of the body material rise in the temperature of body .
Now, substituting equations (1.37), (1.38), (1.39), in the equation (1.1), we have
g
∂∂ ∂∂t ∂ ∂∂ t ∂∂ ∂t
kx ky kz dx dy dz dτ q˙ dx dy dz dτ
∂t
ρ dx dy dz c dτ
∂
Dividing both sides by dx.dy.dz.dτ, we
have
(1.40)
∂ ∂t ∂ ∂t ∂ ∂t
kx ky kz q˙ ρ c
∂∂t ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ g
∂
„
or, using the vector operator V , we get
V „ kV t „ g
q˙ ρ c
∂t
This is known as the general heat conduction equation for ‘non-homogeneous material’,
‘self heat generating’ and ‘unsteady three-dimensional flow’. This equation establishes in
differential form the relationship between the time and space variation of temperature at any
point of solid through which heat flow by conduction takes place.
General heat conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity:
In case of homogeneous (in which properties e.g., specific heat, density, thermal conductivity
etc. are same everywhere in the material) and isotropic (in which properties are independent of
surface orientation) material, kx ky kz k and diffusion equation equation (1.40) becomes
∂ 2t
∂ 2t ∂ 2t
q˙ g ρ c ∂t 1 ∂t
k
where α ρ ∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2 k
55
Thermal Thermal capacity
conductivity k ∂τ α ∂τ τ (1.41)
k
The quantity, α ρ is known as thermal diffusivity.
56
• The larger the value of α, the faster will the heat diffuse through the material and its
temperature will change with time. This will result either due to a high value of thermal
conductivity k or a low value of heat capacity ρ c. A low value of heat capacity means
the less amount of heat entering the element would be absorbed and used to raise its tem-
perature and more would be available for onward transmission. Metals and gases have
relatively high value of α and their response to temperature changes is quite rapid. The
non-metallic solids and liquids respond slowly to temperature changes because of their
relatively small value of thermal diffusivity.
• Thermal diffusivity is an important characteristic quantity for unsteady conduction situa-
tions.
„ 2
Equation (1.41) by using Laplacian V , may be written as:
2
V t „
q˙ g
1 ∂ (1.41a)
t
k α ∂τ
Equation (1.41), governs the temperature distribution under unsteady heat flow through a mate-
rial which is homogeneous and isotropic.
Other simplified forms of heat conduction equation in cartesian co-ordinates:
(i) For2 the case when2 no internal
1 ∂ t source of heat generation is present. Equation (1.41) reduces
∂ t ∂ 2t ∂ t ∂t
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 α ∂τ
. [Unsteady state ∂τ j 0 heat flow with no internal heat
generation]
(ii) For2 the case when2 no internal
∂ t ∂ 2t ∂ t 1 ∂ t source of heat generation
∂t
is present. Equation (1.41) reduces
. [Unsteady state ∂τ j 0 heat flow with no internal heat
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 α ∂τ
generation]
or „
V t
2
α ∂
1 ∂t
Fourier’s equation (1.42)
(iii) Under the situations when temperature does not depend on time, the conduction then takes
∂t
place in steady state i e., 0 and the equation (1.41) reduces to
∂
∂ 2t ∂ 2t ∂ 2t
q˙ g
0
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 k
or, „
V t
2 q˙ g
0 Poisson’s equation (1.43)
k
In the absence of internal heat generation, equation (1.43) reduces to
∂ 2t ∂ 2t∂ 2t
0
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2
or,
V t „ 2
0 (Laplace equation) (1.44)
57
(iv) Steady state and one-dimensional heat transfer
∂ 2t q˙ g
∂ x2 0 (1.45)
k
(v) Steady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation
∂ 2t
0 (1.46)
∂x2
(vi) Steady state, two dimensional, without internal heat generation
∂ 2t ∂ 2t
0 (1.47)
∂x 2 ∂y 2
(vi) Unsteady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation
∂ 2t 1 ∂t
(1.48)
∂x 2 α ∂τ
General heat conduction equation with cylindrical or spherical coordinates:
Equations using cylindrical or spherical coordinates may be derived in a similar way, or
obtained from equation (1.41) by transforming the coordinates. For one-dimensional problems
( e.g. an infinitely long cylinder or a sphere), it is simpler to derive the equations directly as
will be shown ahead in heat transfer through cylinder and a sphere, and as below.
(a) Infinite slab (Figure 1.1(b)). From equation (1.41) we have,
Figure 1.30: Cross-section through an infinitely long cylinder.
∂ 2t qg
1 ∂t
∂x2 k α ∂τ (1.41)
(b) Infinitely long cylinder (Figure 1.30). Applying an energy balance to an element of thick-
ness, dr, we have, Rate of increase of energy of the element = mass specific heat rate
of change of temperature with time, or,
Heat generated - heat loss = rate of increase of energy of the element
58
qg2πr dr ∂ Q˙ ∂t
dr ρ2πr drc
∂r ∂τ
∂ ∂t ∂t
or, qg2πr dr ∂k2πr
r dr∂ρ2πr
r drc ∂τ
∂ 2t ∂t ∂t
also, qgr kr k ρcr
∂ r2 ∂r ∂τ
∂ 2t 1 ∂ t qg 1 ∂t
also, (1.49)
∂ r2 r ∂ r k α ∂τ
(c) Sphere (Figure 1.31). Applying an energy balance,
Figure 1.31: A hollow sphere.
qg4πr2dr ∂ Q˙ ∂t
dr ρ4πr2drc
∂r ∂τ
∂ ∂t ∂t
or, qg4πr2dr ∂k4πr
r 2 dr∂ρ4πr
r 2drc ∂τ
∂ 2t 2∂t
q˙ g 1∂t
and, (1.50)
∂ r2 r ∂ r k α ∂τ
For steady-state cases the right-hand side of equations (1.41), (1.49) and (1.50) becomes
zero, and the equations become ordinary differential equations.
Heat generated in electrical heating:
The heat generated per unit volume due to the current flowing is given by
I2 R
q˙ g
AL
where I is the current, R the electrical resistance, A the cross-sectional area, and L the length.
Current density, J = I/A and resistance, R = sL/A where s is the electrical resistivity of the
59
conductor material,
60
J2A2 sL 2
i.e., q˙ g J s (1.51)
AL A
Example 1.10
A hollow cylindrical copper conductor of 30 mm outside diameter and 14 mm inside diameter
has a current density of 40 A/mm2. The external surface is covered with a uniform layer of
`
insulation of thickness 10 mm, and the ambient temperature is 10 C. Neglecting axial
`
conduction and assuming that the temperature of the insulation must not exceed 135 C at any
point, calculate:
(a) the heat required to be removed per unit time by forced cooling from the inside of the
conductor;
(b) the temperature at the inside surface of the conductor.
Given data: Thermal conductivity of copper= 380 W/mK; thermal conductivity of insulating
material= 0.3 W/mK; heat transfer coefficient at outside surface= 40 W/m2K; electrical
5
resistivity of copper= 2 10 Ω mm.
Solution:
From equation (1.49), for the steady state
∂ 2t 1∂t q˙ g 1 ∂t
k α ∂τ
∂ r2 r ∂ r
Inspection of (1.49) shows the first terms as product of differentiation;
1∂ ∂t
i.e., r q˙ g
r∂r ∂r k
Hence separating variables and integrating,
∂t q˙ g r2
r C1
∂r 2k
∂t q˙ g r C1
, (a)
∂r 2k r
Integrating further, now eqn.(a)
q˙ g
r2
t C1 lnr C2 (b)
4k
where C1 and C2 are integration constants.
From equation (1.51)
q˙ g J A sL
2 2
i.e., 2
J s
AL
61
5
q˙ 402 2 10 W/mm3 32 106 W/m3
g
(a) the heat required to be removed per unit time:

`
The maximum temperature of the insulation ( = 135 C) occurs at the interface between
the insulation and the copper tube. Hence for the insulation, using equation (1.27),
©
i.e., 2πk t1 t2
Q˙
ln r r
2π 0.3 135 t
and, Heat transfer to the outside,
2 Q˙ 0
©
ln
where t is the temperature of the outside surface of the insulation,
50 30
or, 135 t 0.271Q˙ 0 (c)
For the heat transferred from the outside surface of the insulation by convection, from equation
(1.17)
i.e., Q˙ αA tw t
in this case,
Q˙ 0 αA t t f luid
i.e.,
Q˙ 0 40 2π 0.025 t
10
t 10 0.159 Q˙ 0 (d)
Adding equations (c) and (d)
135 10 0.43Q˙ 0
and,
Q˙ 0 290.7 W
Total heat generated internally q˙ g volume
π
32 106 0.032 0.0142 17693.5 W
4
Hence, Heat removed from inside of conductor 17693.5 290.7 W
17.4 kW
(b) the temperature at the inside surface:

Two boundary conditions are required to find the constants C1 and C2 and hence to obtain the
62
solution of equation (b).
63
At the inside surface of the conductor
∂t
Hence, Heat supplied to conductor kA 17400 W
∂ r
∂t
thus, 17400 1041.1 K/m
∂ r r 0.007 380 π 0.014
}
Substituting in equation (a)
1041.1 w 32 106
2 380
0.007 C1
0.007
C1 9.351
`
At the outside surface of the conductor, t = 135 C, hence in equation (b)
135 w 32 106 0.0152

4 380
} 9.351 ln 0.015 C2
and, C2 179
w }
Therefore the complete solution for the temperature distribution in the conductor is,
32 106 2
t r 9.351 lnr 179
4 380
Hence, at the inside surface, when r = 0.007
t w 32 106 0.0072
4 380
} 9.351 ln 0.007 179
131.6 C
`
1.2.8 Critical Thickness of Insulation
Insulation-General aspects
Definition: A material which retards the flow of heat with reasonable effectiveness is known as
‘Insulation’. Insulation serves the following two purposes:
(i)It prevents the heat flow from the system to the surroundings;
(ii)It prevents the heat flow from the surroundings to the system.
64
Applications:
The fields of application of insulations are:
(i)Boilers and steam pipes
(ii)Air-conditioning systems
(iii) Food preserving stores and refrigerators
(iv) Insulating bricks (employed in various types of
furnaces) (v)Preservation of liquid gases etc.
Factors affecting thermal conductivity Some of the important factors which affect thermal con-
ductivity (k) of the insulators (the value of k should be always low to reduce the rate of heat
flow) are as follows:
1. Temperature: For most of the insulating materials, the value of k increases with increase
in temperature.
2. Density: There is no mathematical relationship between k and ρ (density). The common
understanding that high density insulating materials will have higher values of k in not
always true.
3. Direction of heat flow: For most of the insulating materials (except few like wood) the
effect of direction of heat flow on the values of k is negligible.
4. Moisture: It is always considered necessary to prevent ingress of moisture in the
insulating materials during service, it is however difficult to find the effect of moisture
on the values of k of different insulating materials.
5. Air pressure: It has been found that the value of k decreases with decrease in pressure.
6. Convection in insulators: The value of k increases due to the phenomenon of convection
in insulators.
Critical Thickness of Insulation

The addition of insulation always increases the conductive thermal resistance. But when the total
thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal resistance [(Rth cond.] and convective
resistance [(Rth conv.], the addition of insulation in some cases may reduce the convective
thermalresistance due to increase in surface area, as in the case of a cylinder and a sphere, and
thermal
the total thermal resistance may actually decrease resulting in increased heat flow. It may be
shown that the thermal resistance actually decreases and then increases in some cases.
“The thickness” upto which heat flow increases and after which heat flow decreases is termed as
Critical thickness. In case of cylinders and spheres it is called ‘Critical radius’.
A. Critical thickness of insulation for cylinder:
Consider a solid cylinder of radius r1 insulated with an insulation of thickness r2 r1 as shown
in Figure 1.32.
Let, x = Length of the cylinder,
t1 = Surface temperature of the cylinder,
tair = Temperature of air,
α0 = Heat transfer coefficient at the outer surface of the insulation, and
65
k = Thermal conductivity of insulating material.
Then the rate of heat transfer from the surface of the

solid cylinder to the surroundings is given by
Q ln r2πx
2 r1
k
t t1
©1
air
α 0 r2
(1.52)
the factor
k
©
From eqn. (1.52) it is evident that as r2 increases,
ln r2 r1 1
increases but the factor α r de-
0 2
crease
Thus Q˙ becomes maximum when the denominator
k
©
ln r2 r1 1
α 0 r2
becomes minimum.
Figure 1.32: Critical thickness of insu-

The required condition is, lation for a cylinder.
d ln r2 r1
dr2 k
© α
1
0 2r
0 r2being the only variable
1111
i.e., 0
k r α 2
r2
1 1
or, α 0 or α 0 r2 k
k 0 r2
k
and, r2 rc (1.53)
α
The above relation represents the condition for minimum resistance and consequently
*maximum heat flow rate. The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is
called the ‘critical radius (rc). The critical radius rc is dependent of the thermal quantities k and
α0 and is independent of r1 (i.e., cylinder radius).
*It may be noted that if the second derivative of the denominator is evaluated, it will come out
to be positive. This would verify that heat flow rate will be maximum, when r2 rc.
©
In eqn. (1.52),
i.e., 2πx t t1
Q ln r2 r1 1
air ,
α 0r
©
k 2
ln r2 r1
is the conduction (insulation) thermal resistance which increases with increasing
k
r2 and 1/α0.r2 is the convective thermal resistance which decreases with increasing r2. At r2 =
rc the rate of increase of conductive resistance of insulation is equal to the rate of decrease of
convective resistance thus giving a minimum value for the sum of thermal resistances.
66
In the physical sense we may arrive at the following conclusions:
(i) For cylindrical bodies with r 1 $ rc, the heat transfer increases by adding insulation till r 2 =
rc as shown in Figure 1.33 (a)]. If insulation thickness is further increased, the rate of
heat loss will decrease from this peak value, but until a certain amount of insulation
denoted by r2’ at b is added, the heat loss rate is still greater for the solid cylinder. This
happens when r1 is small and rc is large, viz., the thermal conductivity of the insulation k
is high (poor insulating material) and α0 is low. A practical application would be the
insulation of electric cables which should be good insulator for current but poor for heat.
(ii) For cylindrical bodies with r 1 % rc, the heat transfer decreases by adding insulation[Figure
1.33 (b)]. This happens when r1 is large and rc is small, viz., a good insulating material is
used with low k and α0 is high. In steam and refrigeration pipes heat insulation is the main
objective. For insulation to be properly effective in restricting heat transmission, the outer
radius must be greater than or equal to the critical radius.
Figure 1.33: Effect of insulation thickness on rate of heat loss.
B. Critical thickness of insulation for sphere:

Referring to Figure 1.34. The general equation of heat flow through a sphere with insulation is
as given in eqn.(1.32)
i.e., Q˙
1
hh r2 1
nn
n1
v
4π th tc
rn 1 rn
kn rn rn 1
| hc r2
1
Here, Q˙ 4π th tc
r2 r1 1
k r r 2
1 2 h0 r2
Since the only variable here is r2, the denominator will be differentiated and equated to zero,
d r2 r1 1
i.e., 0
d 4πk 4πr22
d 1 1 1
and, 0
d k k r2 2
67
12
or, 0
kr 2
r3h0
2 2
or, r h0 2kr2
3
2 2
2k
and, r2 rc (1.54)
h
Figure 1.34: Critical thickness of insulation for a sphere.
Example 1.11
A small electric` heating application uses wire of 2 mm diameter with 0.8 mm thick insulation `
(k = 0.12 W/m C). The heat transfer coefficient (h ) on the insulated surface is 35 W/m2 C.
Determine the critical thickness of insulation in this case
0 and the percentage change in the heat
transfer rate if the critical thickness is used, assuming the temperature difference between the
surface of the wire and surrounding air remains unchanged.
Solution:
Given:
2
r = = 1 mm = 0.001 m
21
r2 = + 0.8 = 1.8 mm = 0.0018 m
1 ` `
k = 0.12 W/m C, h = 35 W/m2 C
0
Critical thickness of insulation:
The critical radius of insulation is given by
k 0.12 3
rc 3.43 10 m or 3.43 mm.
h0 35
Critical thickness of insulation rc r1 3.43 1 2.43 mm.
Percentage change in heat transfer rate:

Case I : The heat flow through an insulated wire is given by eqn.(1.29)
68
i.e., Q˙
1hh r1 ln r2 r1
kA
©
2 π x th t c
ln r3 r2
kB
© 1
hc r3
For this case;
©
Q˙ 2πL t1 tair
1
ln r2 r1 1
k h0 r2
©
2πL t1 tair 2πL t1 tair
0.0018 1 20.77
l 0.001 35
Case II : The heat flow nthrough an insulated wire when critical thickness is used is given by;
©
2πL t1 tair
Q˙
2
ln rc r1 1
k h0 rc
©
2πL t1 tair 2πL t1 tair
(i)
ln 0.00343 0.001 1 18.6
0.12 35 0.00343
Percentage increases in heat flow by using critical thickness of insulation.
1 1
Q˙ 2 18.6 20.77
100 100 11.6%.
Q˙ 1 1
Q˙ 1 20.77
1.2.9 Transient conduction in one dimension

The equations for one-dimensional transient conduction, (1.41), (1.49), and (1.50), can be
solved using the separation of variables method. For example,from equation (1.41),
∂ 2t qg
1 ∂t
i.e.,
∂x2
k α ∂τ
for the case when there is no internal heat generation is given by eqn. (1.48);
∂ 2t 1 ∂t
i.e.,
∂x 2 α ∂τ
r x
solution to this differential equation it can be shown to be;
C 1sin px C2
α pτ
t e cos px
69
where p, C1 and C2 are determined by the boundary conditions.
For an infinite slab of half-thickness, L, initially at a uniform temperature, t i, throughout, which
is suddenly exposed to a fluid at a constant temperature, tF , the temperature at any point, x, at
v |
time, τ, is given by;
t tF p,L 2Fo sin pnL cos pnx
™
=
t et
i F
2
n
p .L
n
sin p L cos p L
n n (1.55)
and, pnL tan pnL Bi (1.56)
where Bi is the Biot number, αL/k and Fo the Fourier number, kτ ρc L or2 λτ L .
©
Similar equations can be derived from the cases of the infinitely long cylinder and the sphere,
and graphs of non-dimensional temperature against Fourier number for various values of 1/ Bi
© 2
have been drawn (see for example reference 1.1).
1.2.10 Newtonian heating or cooling

This approach, which is sometimes known as lumped capacity, may be used when the temper-
ature within a body does not vary appreciably as the body’s average temperature changes with
time due to exposure of the body to a fluid at a different temperature. This is the case when the
surface thermal resistance is very much greater than the internal thermal resistance, and hence
the heat transfer from the surface is the controlling factor.
For a body of surface area, A, volume, V, specific heat, c, and density, ρ, with an average
temperature, ¯t, at any time, τ, we have,
dt
α A ¯t tF ρVc
¯
where α is the surface heat transfer coefficient and tF the temperature of the fluid surrounding
the body, assumed constant with time. Therefore, d
¯
tt
E τ
αA
ρVc d
E
t F
ti 0
where ti is the initial temperature of the body,
¯t tF
i.e., ln α Aτ
ti tF ρVc
o
¯t tF
ti tF e
©
αAτ ρV c
(1.57)
Equation (1.57) can also be written as,
o
¯t tF
ti tF e
©
AL V BiFo
(1.58)
70
The dimension of length, L, may be the half-thickness of an infinite slab, or the radius of an
infinite cylinder, or the radius of a sphere. The term AL/ V for an infinite slab, cylinder or
sphere, may be shown to be 1, 2, or 3 respectively, e.g. for a sphere
AL 4πL 2 L
V 4πL2 3
In the previously considered exact solution, equation (1.55), it can be shown that when Fo %
0.2 then only the first term of the summation need be considered within engineering accurancy.
Also, when Bi is small, then in equation (1.56) tan p L approximates to p L , and hence
approximates
Bi1 to p1L2 . Similarly, sin p1L approximates to p1L and cos p1L 1approaches
unity. Therefore, substituting these approximations into equation (1.55), for the centre where x
= 0, and hence cos p1x is 1, we have,
t tF BiFo p1L
ti tF pLpL BiFo
o 2e e
1 1
Comparing this with equation (1.58) it can be seen to be equivalent to Newtonian cooling of an
infinite slab, i.e. when Fo % 0.2 and Bi is very small the problem approximates to Newtonian
cooling.
Example 1.12
For transient conduction in a sphere when Fo % 0.2 it can be shown that the solution of equation
(1.50)
∂ 2t 2 ∂ t q˙ g 1 ∂ t
i.e.,
k α ∂τ
∂ r2 r ∂ r
v |
for the temperature at the centre of the sphere, tc, when initially at ti, and plunged into a fluid at
tF , is given by,
tc tF p,L 2Fo sin p1L p1Lcos p1L
2e
ti tF p .L sin p L cos p L
1 1 1
and, 1 p1Lcot p1L Bi
Using the data below determine

`
the temperature at the centre of a sphere, initially at a
uniform temperature`
of 500 C, twenty minutes after it is plunged into a large bath ofliquid at a
temperature of 20 C:
(a) from the above equation;
(b)assuming Newtonian
cooling.
Data: Radius of sphere= 50 mm; density of sphere= 7600 kg/m3; thermal conductivity of sphere
= 40 W/m K; specific heat of sphere = 0.5 kJ /kg K; heat transfer coefficient from sphere surface
to liquid = 88.8 W /m2 K. It may be assumed that the heat transfer coefficient and the
temperature of the liquid remain constant over the time period.
Solution:
71
(a) Using transient equation for conduction;
Bi αL/k, , 88.8 ©
0.05 40 0.111
, 1 p1Lcot p1L 0.111
or, p1Lcot p1L 0.889
This equation may be solved by trial and error,
p 1L 0.7 0.6 0.5

i.e
Lcot p L 0 831 0 877 0 915 .
. .
1 p1
By further trial and error, or by drawing a graph, it can be shown that p1 L = 0.57.
Also; Fo λ τ R2© © kτ ρcR2 40 20 60 © 7600 0.5 103 0.052
tc tF
thus,
p,L 2Fo sin 0.57 0.57 cos 0.57 0.57 2 5,053
ti tF e sin 0.57 cos2e
0.5
7
tt
or, c 0.5161
F 0.570.2
2 0.1936
ti tF
or, tc 20 0.2 500 20 l16 C`
(b) assuming Newtonian cooling;

For Newtonian cooling of a sphere, from equation (1.58)
¯t
i.e.,
tF e
©
AL V BiFo
t t
i F
¯t
and, 3BiFo 3 0.111 5.053 AL/V 3
tF e e
t t
i F
¯t 20 0.1859 500 20
`
109.2 C
72
73
1.2.11 Numerical methods for conduction
The most commonly used numerical method is the finite difference method in which a
differential equation is replaced by an approximate algebraic expression. The set of equations
thus produced can be solved using a computer. The reader is recommended to consult
references 1.2 and 1.3 for a fuller treatment of numerical methods and their application in heat
transfer.
A different method known as the finite element method is increasingly being used for heat
transfer applications, but is not considered in this book. In specialized texts the derivation of
finite difference expressions is given in detail, using for example the Taylor series, but in this
book only the following brief illustration will be given. Referring to a graph of t against x
(Figure 1.35), three approximations to the true tangent to the curve dt/dx are illustrated,
dt
i.e., tx tx δx
backward difference (1.59)
dx δx
dt tx δx tx
forward difference (1.60)
dx
δ
dt tx δx tx δx
central difference (1.61)
dx
δ
Figure 1.35: Diagrammatic defini-

tion of backward, forward, and
central difference
approximations.
It can be seen from the Figure 1.35 that the central difference approximation, equation (1.61), is
a more accurate approximation to the true slope.
«
The second derivative, d2t dx2 , is the rate of change of slope at the point x. This may be
© © ©
approximated as the change of dt/dx over the distance δ x. From Figure 1.35 it can be seen
that the slope at

approximately tx x t+x (δ x/2) is approximately t t δ x, and the slope at x δx 2
δ x δ x. Hence the rate of change of slope over the distance δ x is given
v |
by dt
2
tx δ x t t t 1
isx δx x
x x x δx
dx2 δ δ δ
74
d2t tx t 2δ x
i.e., δx x δx (1.62)
dx 2
δ x2
To solve a conduction problem by the finite difference method the relevant partial differential
equation is replaced using expressions such as the above. The space and time dimensions are
divided into a number of increments of finite size and the approximate expression which
replaces the differential equation applies to every point in the grid of points, or nodes; separate
equations are derived for the boundary conditions. Hence the relevant differential equation is
effectively replaced by a large number of identical algebraic expressions for the temperature at
each point in the space at any time.
A set of simultaneous equations can be put in the form of a matrix and solved by matrix
inversion methods. However, in the case of conduction the matrix of temperature coefficients
has a small number of non-zero terms and hence matrix inversion is not recommended. It is
better to solve such a matrix by a direct method such as Gaussian elimination.
In the case of steady conduction in two dimensions the initial temperatures are unknown and
hence the set of equations is more conveniently solved by a relaxation method such as Gauss-
Siedel iteration.
Errors
Using a finite difference method the answer obtained converges towards the exact solution as
the size of the increments chosen approaches zero. Finite difference expressions must be
chosen such that the computer solution converges towards the exact solution; in certain cases
the solution will become unstable because errors generated are increasing in size as the
solution proceeds, or are growing at a faster rate than the rate of convergence.
There are basically two types of error: round-off error and discretization error. Round-off error
occurs when the answer is taken to a specific number of significant figures, and is cumulative;
fortunately in modern computers this error is not usually important. Discretization error is
mainly due to the inaccuracy of the finite difference expression, see Figure 1.35, and can be
reduced by reducing the size of the increments.
Notation
Referring to Figure 1.36, a two-dimensional space may be divided into a grid of nodes as
shown. The temperature at any point may then be designated as t i, j . Note that i increases from
left to right, and j from bottom to top, of the grid, following the normal x-direction and y-
direction respectively.
For a problem in transient conduction the temperature at any time will be denoted by tτ ; the
1 i
next time is therefore τ + 1 and the temperature at that instant is t τ . For transient problems in
i
one-dimension the j-direction will be omitted.
1.2.12 Two-dimensional steady conduction
75
Figure 1.36: Grid definition for
two-dimensional steady conduc-
tion.
∂ 2t ∂ 2t ∂ 2t q˙ g 1 ∂t
where,
∂ x2 ∂ y2 ∂ z2 k α ∂τ
But, for zero internal heat generation and for steady conduction in two dimensions, the equation
reduces to the Laplace equation (1.47),
∂ 2t ∂ 2t
i.e., 0
∂x2 ∂y2
This equation may be put into finite difference form using the central difference expression,
equation (1.62). Using the notation outlined in above (see Figure 1.36), we have,
ti 1, j ti 1, j 2ti, j
ti, j 1 ti, j 1 2ti, j
δ x2
2
The grid may be chosen such that δ x = δ x, then δ
ti, j ti, j 1 ti 1, j ti, j 1 ti 1, j 4 (1.63)
©
All the internal points within the boundaries of the two-dimensional space are represented by
equation (1.63).
Conducting rod analogy

Equation (1.63) may be derived using the basic Fourier equation and the concept of heat flow
paths. In Figure 1.37 conducting paths of width, δ x, from each point towards the centre point,
are shown cross-hatched. Fourier’s law can be applied to each conducting path; for example,
the heat transferred from point (i + l,j) to point (i,j) is given by
Thermal conductivity area temperature gradient
76
Figure 1.37: Conducting rod anal-
ogy for two-dimensional steady
conduction.
ti 1, j ti, j
kδx
δx
Then a simple energy balance
gives,
ti 1, j ti, j
kδx ti, j 1 ti, j ti 1, j ti, j ti, j 1 ti, j
kδx kδx kδx 0
δ δ δ δ
This equation reduces to the same expression as in equation (1.63).

The conducting rod analogy can be used in more complex cases, including the case with
internal heat generation or at a boundary convecting to a fluid; it may be found easier to apply
since it relates to a simple physical model.
Boundary conditions
Surface convecting to a fluid For a point (i,j) on the surface (see Figure 1.38):
kdt α tF ti j
dx
,
Using a central difference expression for dt/dx, equation eq:HTTFR56

dt
i.e., tx δx tx δx
dx δx
ti 1, j ti 1, j
then, k αt
F ti, j (1.64)
2
The point (i - 1,j) is fictitious and can be eliminated from the equation by assuming that it lies
on the extrapolated temperature distribution line (see Figure 1.39), i.e. from equation
eq:HTTFR58:
77
Figure 1.38: Grid for a left-hand
surface convecting to a fluid in
two- dimensional steady
conduction.
ti 1, j 4ti, j ti 1, j ti, j 1 ti, j 1
Substituting in equation (1.64)

2αδ x
ti 1 j 4ti j ti 1 j ti j 1 ti j 1 ti j tF
, , , k ,
Figure 1.39: Fictitious point

for a left-hand surface in two-
dimensional steady conduction.
ti, j 2ti 1, j ti, j 1 ti, j 1

4 2αδ x/k
2αδ x k © (1.65)
Similar expressions may be obtained for a surface with the fluid on the right, or at the top or
bottom. Equation (1.65) can be derived using the conducting rod analogy with a rod of half-
width, δ x/2, running from point (i,j + 1) to point (i,j), and from point (i,j - 1) to (i,j),
ti 1, j ti, j
i.e., kδx δ x ti, j 1 ti, j δ x ti, j 1 ti, j
k k αδ x t i, j Ft
2 δ 2 δ
δ
78
Simplifying this equation the same expression as in equation (1.65) is obtained.
Insulated surface
At an insulated surface, - k dt/dx = 0, or α = 0, and hence for a left-hand surface which is
insulated equation (1.65) reduces to,
ti, j ti 1, j ti, j 1 ti, j 1

4
It should be noted that a line of thermal symmetry within a two-dimensional space will act as an
insulated surface .
Corners
Expressions can be derived for the temperatures at outside corners (top left, bottom right, etc.)
©
and at inside corners. For example, for a top left outside corner
ti, j ti 1, j ti, j 1 2αδ xtF k
©
2 2αδ
©
For a bottom right inside corner
x k
ti, j ti 1, j ti, j 1 ti 1, j 2αδ xtF k
©
6 2αδ
The derivation of expressions for corner points such as the above is left as an exercise for the
reader; the conducting rod analogy is the bestx method,
k particularly for inside corners.
1.3 Heat Transfer by Convection

The rate equation for the convective heat transfer (regardless of particular nature) between a
surface and an adjacent fluid is prescribed by Newton’s law of cooling (Figure 1.39) and
governed by equation (1.17)
i.e., Q˙ αA ts t f
where, Q˙ Rate of conductive heat transfer,

A = Area exposed to heat transfer,
ts Surface temperature,
t f Fluid temperature, and
α Co-efficient of conductive heat transfer.
The coefficient of convective heat transfer ‘α’ (also known as film heat transfer coefficient)
may be defined as “the amount of heat transmitted for a unit temperature difference between
the fluid and unit area of surface in unit time.”
The value of ‘α’ depends on the following factors:
(i) Thermodynamic and transport properties (e.g., viscosity, density, specific heat etc.) ;
79
(ii) Nature of fluid flow ;
(iii)Geometry of the surface ;
(iv)Prevailing thermal
conditions.
Since ‘α’ depends upon several factors, it is difficult to frame a single equation to satisfy all the
variations, however a dimensional analysis gives an equation for the purpose which is given as
under: kD ρCD a
cµ b D c
Z π (1.66)
λ
λ L c
a b D
or,Nu Z Re Pr
L
kD
where, Nu = Nusselt number,
λ
π
ρu¯D
Re = Reynolds number,
cµ
Pr = Prandtl number,
λ
D
Diameter to length ratio,
ZL = A constant to be determined experimentally,
ρ Density,
µ Dynamic viscosity, and u¯
mean Velocity
C = Velocity
c = specific heat capacity.
The mechanisms of convection in which

phase changes are involved lead to the
important fields of boiling and condensa-
tion.
Referring to Figure 1.40 (b).

1
The quantity,
kA ts t f
From equation(1.17) i.e. Q˙ ,
1 αA Figure 1.40: Convective heat-transfer.
©
is called convection thermal resistance [ Rth conv.]
to heat flow.
Other dimensionless numbers used in heat

transfer:
80
α Nu
Stanton number, St =
ρVc Re pr
uL
Peclet number, Pe = Re Pr
σ
u is fluid velocity, L is a characteristic dimension, and σ is thermal
πD
diffusivity Graetz number, G = Pe
ρ 2 β g∆tL3
Grashoff number, Gr =
µ2
1.3.1 Forced convection

The study of forced convection is concerned with the transfer of heat between a moving fluid
and a solid surface. In order to apply Newton’s law of cooling, given by equation (1.17), it
is necessary to find a value for the heat transfer coefficient, α. It is stated that α is given by
k
δ , where k, is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and δ is the thickness of the fluid film on
the surface. The problem is then to find a value for δ in terms of the fluid properties and the
fluid velocity; δ depends on the type of fluid flow across the surface and this is governed by
the Reynolds number.
The various kinds of forced convection, such as flow in a tube, flow across a tube, flow across
a flat plate, etc. can be solved mathematically when certain assumptions are made with regard
to the boundary conditions. It is exceedingly difficult to obtain an exact mathematical solution
to such problems, particularly in the case of turbulent flow, but approximate solutions can be
obtained by making suitable assumptions.
It is not within the scope of this study to approach the subject of forced convection
fundamentally. However, many of the results used in heat transfer are derived from experiment,
and in fact for many problems, no mathematical solution is available and empirical values are
essential. These empirical values can be generalized using dimensional analysis, which will
now be considered.
Dimensional analysis
In order to apply dimensional analysis it is necessary to know from experience all the variables
upon which the desired function depends. The results must apply to geometrically similar
bodies, therefore one of the variables must always be a characteristic linear dimension.
Consider the dimensional analysis for forced convection, assuming that the effects of free con-
vection, due to differences in density, may be neglected. It is found that the heat transfer coef-
ficient, α, depends on the fluid viscosity, µ, the fluid density, ρ, the thermal conductivity of
the fluid, ,k, the specific heat capacity of the fluid, c, the temperature difference between the
surface and the fluid, ∆, and the fluid velocity, C. Therefore we have,
81
α f µ, ρ, k, c,∆t, C, l (1.67)
82
where l is a characteristic linear dimension and f is some function. Equation eq:HTTFR62 can
be written as follows:
α Aµ a1 , ρ b1 , kc1, cd1, ∆te1, C f1 , lg1 Bµ a2 , ρ b2 , kc2, cd2, ∆te2,C f2, lg2 etc. (1.68)
where A and B are constants, and a1 , b1 , c1 , etc. are arbitrary indices.

Each term on the right-hand side of the equation must have the same dimensions as the dimen-
sions of α. Considering the first term only, we can write,
Dimensions ofα dimensions of (Aµ a1 , ρ b1 , kc1, cd1, ∆t e1 ,C f1, lg1
Each of the properties in the equation can be expressed in terms of five fundamental
dimensions; these are mass, M, length, L, time, T, temperature, t, and heat, H.
W H
Forαthe units are , i.e.,
m 2K L2Tt
kg M
Forµthe units are , i.e.,
ms LT
W H
For k the units are , i.e.,
mK LTt
kg M
Forρthe units are , i.e.,
m3 L3
kJ H
For c the units are , i.e.,
kg K Mt
For∆t the units are K, i.e., t

m L
For C the units are , i.e.,
s T
For l the units are m, i.e., L
Hence, substituting,
a b c d
H M M H H e g
, , , , t , L , L
L2 L L L M T
H abd f g a 3b c acf ecd c d

i.e., M L T t H
L2
For the dimensions of each side of the equation to be the same, the power to which each funda-
mental dimension is raised must be the same on both sides of the equation. Therefore, equating
indices we have,
83
For H: l = c+d
For L: -2 = f + g - a - 3b - c
For T: -1 = -a - c - f
For t: -1 = e - c - d
For M: O=a+b-
d
We have five equations and seven unknowns, therefore a solution can only be obtained in terms
of two of the indices. It is most useful to express a, b, c, e, and g in terms of d and f Then it can
be shown that,
a = (d - f); b = f; c = (1 - d); e = 0; g = (f - 1)
Substituting these values in equation (1.68), we
have,
d1 f 1 f 1 d1 d 0 f f1 1 d2 f 2 f 1 d2 d 0 f f2 1
α Aµ , ρ 1, k , c 1 , ∆t ,C 1 , l Bµ , ρ 2, k , c 2 , ∆t ,C 2 , l etc.
d1 f1 d2 f2
k µc ρ Cl k µc ρ Cl
l k µ B µ etc.
l k
Hence it can be seen that,
v
i.e., αA
αl µc ρ Cl
k , µ
|
k KF
where K is a constant and F is some function.
Example 1.13
A wire 1.5 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is submerged in water at atmospheric pressure. `
An electric current is passed through the wire and is increased until the water boils at 100 C.
`
Under these condition the convective heat transfer coefficient is 4500 W/2 C Evaluate the
quantity of electric power that must be supplied to the wire to maintain the wire surface at
`
120 C. Solution:
Diameter of the wire, d = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m,
Length of the wire, l = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Surface area of the wire (exposed to heat transfer),
4
A πdl π 0.0015 0.15 7.068 10 m2
`
Wire surface temperature, ts = 120 C
`
Water temperature, tf = 100 C
`
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h = 4500 W/m2 C
Electric power to be supplied:
Electric power which must be supplied = Total convection loss (Q˙ )
s
4
Q˙ αA t t 4500 7.068 10 120 100 63.6 W.
Example 1.14
84
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient for water flowing
`
through a 25 mm diameter tube at the
rate of 1.5 kg/s, when the mean bulk temperature is 40 C. For turbulent flow of a liquid take,
Nu 0.0243Re0.8 Pr0.4
where the characteristic dimension of length is the tube diameter and all properties are
evaluated at mean bulk temperature.
Solution:
First it is necessary to ascertain whether the flow is turbulent or laminar. For flow through a
tube it can be assumed that the flow is turbulent when Re % 2100 approximately. The properties
of water can be taken from the steam tables.
©
Then,
Volume flow 1.5 v f 1.5 0.001 0.0015 m3 s

i.e.,
C Velocity in tube, 0.0015 4 3.06 m/s
π 0.025 2
ρCd
Cd 3.06 0.025
Re vf 117500
µ
µ 6
0.001 651 10
The flow is therefore well into the turbulent region and the formula given for turbulent flow can
be applied.
From tables, Pr = 4.3, hence substituting,
Nu 0.0243 117500 0.8

4.3 0.4
0.0243 11377 1.792 495.5
αd
Nu 495.5
k
6
495.5 632 10
©
2
α
12.53 kW m K
0.025
i.e., Heat transfer coefficient 12.53 kW /m2K
©
For laminar flow in a tube an exact mathematical solution has been found; this gives Nu =
3.65. It can be seen that, since Nu αd k 3.65, the heat transfer coefficient, α, for any one tube,
depends only on the thermal conductivity of the fluid.
In the foregoing dimensional analysis five fundamental dimensions, heat H, length L, time T,
temperature t, and mass M, were chosen. The units of work, or energy in general, are given by,
Force distance mass acceleration distance

L
M L ML2
T2 T2
85
Since heat is a form of energy it can be seen that there is no need to choose heat as one of the
fundamental dimensions. If the dimension, H, is omitted, and the units of heat are replaced by
ML2/T2 whenever they occur, then four dimensionless groups are obtained from the
w }
dymensional analysis done earlier,
i.e., Nu = KF (Pr), (Re), C

c∆t
2
C
Now if the group is divided by (γ - 1), which is a constant for any one gas, and if ∆t is
c∆t
replaced by the absolute bulk temperature of the gas, T, then we have,
2
C2 C2 C2
R = cv γ 1
cT γ 1 γRT a Ma
where a is the velocity of sound in the gas and Ma the Mach number (discussed in study of
nozzles)
Hence, Nu K’F Pr , Re , Ma 2
where K’ is another constant.

The influence of the Mach number, Ma, on the heat transfer is negligible for most problems.
For high-speed flow however, large amounts of kinetic energy are dissipated by friction in the
boundary layer near the surface, and the Mach number becomes an important parameter.
Reynolds analogy
Reynolds postulated that the heat transfer from a solid surface is similar to the transfer of fluid
momentum from the surface, and hence that it is possible to express the heat transfer in terms
of the frictional resistance to the flow.
Consider turbulent flow. It can be assumed that particles of mass, m, transport heat and
momentum to and from the surface, moving perpendicular to the surface. Then on the
average,
Heat transferred per unit area,q˙ m˙ c∆t
where c is the specific heat capacity of the fluid and ∆ t the temperature difference between the
surface and the bulk of the fluid. Also, the rate of change of momentum across the stream is
given by,
m C Cw m˙ C
where C is the velocity of the bulk of the fluid and Cw the fluid velocity at the surface = 0. Then,
Force per unit area τw m˙ C
where τw is the shear stress in the fluid at the wall.

Combining the equations for heat flow and momentum transfer,
86
then,
q˙ τw
c∆t C
or, τqw˙c∆t (1.69)

C
For turbulent flow in practice there is always a thin layer of fluid on the surface in which
viscous effects predominate. This film is known as the laminar sublayer. In this layer heat is
transferred purely by conduction. Therefore, from Fourier’s law, for unit area;
q˙
d y
k v|
dt
where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and y the distance from the surface
perpendicular to the surface. Also, for viscous flow,
Shear stress,τ µ velocity gradient
Hence the shear stress at the wall is given by,
dC
τw µ
d y
where µ is the fluid viscosity and C the fluid velocity.

Now since the laminar sublayer is very thin it may be assumed that the temperature and velocity
vary linearly with the distance from the wall, y,
∆t C
i.e., q˙ k and τw µ
δb δb
where δb is the thickness of the laminar sublayer.

Then eliminating δb, and neglecting the minus sign, we have
q˙ τw
k∆t µC
i.e., τw ∆t
C q˙
µ
It can be seen that this equation is identical with equation (1.69) when,
k
c
µ
i.e., when,
cµ
1 or Pr 1
k
87
Therefore for fluids whose Prandtl number is approximately unity the simple Reynolds
analogy can be applied, since .the heat transferred across the laminar sublayer can be
considered in a similar way to the heat transferred from the sublayer to the bulk of the fluid.
For most gases, dry vapours, and superheated vapours Pr lies between about 0.65 and 1.2.
For unit surface area, q˙ α∆t, therefore substituting in equation (1.69), we have,
α τw
c C
Dividing through by ρC, where ρ is the mean density of the fluid, we have,
α τw
ρcC ρC2
Both sides of this equation are dimensionless. The term on the left-hand side is called the Stanton
number, St,
α
i.e., St
Cc (1.70)
ρ
A dimensionless friction factor, f, is defined by,
©
τ
f w
(1.71)
ρC2 2
Therefore we have for the Reynolds analogy,
f
St (1.72)
2
The Stanton number, St, can be written as,
α αl µ k Nu
St cµ
ρCc k ρCl RePr
Nu
i.e., St (1.73)
Re
The friction factor, f, can be derived mathematically for some cases, but in other cases a
practical determination is necessary. For turbulent flow in a pipe a simple measurement of the
pressure drop gives f, and then, using equation (1.69) or equation (1.72), the approximate heat
flow can be found.
For flow in a pipe of diameter, d, the resistance to flow over unit length is given by,
π
Resistance τwπd ∆p d2
4
where ∆p is the pressure drop in unit length.
∆pd
i.e., τw (1.74)
4
88
An important factor in heat exchanger design is the pumping power required. The pumping
power is the rate at which work is done in overcoming the frictional resistance, i.e. for flow in
a pipe,
Pumping power per unit

τwπdC
length,W˙ Also, from equation (1.69),

τw c∆t
Heat flow per umt area,q˙
C
τw c∆tπd
Heat flow per umt length,Q˙
C
Then the ratio of the pumping power, W˙ , to the rate of heat flow, Q˙ , can be expressed as,
W˙ τw πdCC C2
(1.75)
Q˙ τw c∆tπd c∆t
(for a heat exchanger, ∆t is the log mean temperature difference, ∆¯tin, - to be shown in later
study).
It can be seen from equation (1.75) that the power required for a given heat transfer rate can be
reduced by decreasing the velocity of flow, C. However, a reduction in fluid velocity means
that the required surface area must be increased, and hence a compromise must be made.
Example 1.15
Water flows inside a tube 45 mm in diameter and 3.2 m `long at a velocity of 0.78 m/s.
©
Given the following data: the mean water temperature = 50 C and the wall is isothermal at
` ` 6
70 C. For water at 50 C, k = 0.66 W/mK, kinematic viscosity, ν 0.478 10 m2 s and
Prandtl number
= 2.98. Determine;
(a) the heat transfer co-efficient,
and (b)the rate of heat transfer.
Solution:
Given:
Diameter of the tube, D = 45 mm = 0.045 m
Length of the tube, l = 3.2 m
Velocity of water, u¯ = 0.78 m/s
©
`
For water at 60 C, k = 0.66 W/mK
6
Kinematic viscosity, ν 0.478 10 m2 s
Pr = 2.98
(a) the heat transfer co-efficient;
Reynolds number (Re), is given by,
Du¯ 0.045 0.78

Re ν 73431
6
0.478 10
89
From Dittus and Boelter equation, Nusselt number,
αD 0.8 0.4
Nu 0.023 Re Pr
k
0.8 0.4
0.023 73431 2.98
α 0045
an 0.023 7810.9 1.547
0.66
4076 W/m K2
thus, Heat transfer co-efficient 4076W/m2K

(b) the rate of heat transfer,Q˙
Q˙ αA (tw tf
4076 π DL 70 50
4076 π 0.045 3.2 20 36878 or 36.878 kW
i.e., Rate of heat transfer 36.878 kW.
Example 1.16
When 0.5 kg of` water per`
minute is passed through a tube of 20 mm diameter, it is found to be
heated from 20 C to 50 C. The heating is accomplished by condensing steam on`the surface of
the tube and subsequently the surface temperature of the tube is maintained at 85 C. Determine
the length of the tube required for developed flow.
©
`
Take the thermo-physical properties of water at 60 C as: Density, ρ = 983.2 kg/m2 , c = 4.178
` 6 p
kJ/kg K, k = 0.659 W/m C, kinematic viscosity, ν 0.478 10 m2 s.
Solution:
Given:
` `
m = 0.5 kg/min, D = 20 mm = 0.02 m, t = 20 C, t = 50 C.
i 0
Length of the tube required for fully developed flow, L:
The mean film temperature, 1 85 20 50 60 C

`
f
t 2
2
First, the type of the flow should be determined;
π 2 0.5
m ρAu˙ 983.2 0.02 u˙ kg/s
4 6
and, 0.5 4 1
u˙ 0.0269 m/s
60 π 983.2 0.02 2
Then, Reynolds number, Re Re D 0.02 0.0269

1125.5
u¯ 0.478 10 6
ν
Since Re $ 2000, hence the flow is laminar. With constant wall temperature having fully
developed flow,
90
αD
Nu 3.65
k
and, α 3.65k 3.65 0.659 2`

D 120.26 W/m C
0.02
The rate of heat transfer, Q As α ts t™ mc p to ti
20 50 `
Here, t™ 35 C tb
2 0.5
0 02 L 120 26 85 35 4 178 103 50 20
60
or, 377.8L 1044.5
π . . 1044.5 .
and, L 2.76 m.
377
Example 1.17
In a 25 mm diameter tube the pressure drop per metre length is 0.0002 bar at a section where
the mean velocity is 24 m/s, and the mean specific heat capacity of the gas is 1.13 kJ /kg K.
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient.
Solution:
For a 1 m length
∆p 0.0002 bar
∆pd
i.e., τw
4
105 0.0002 25 2
and, τw 0.125 N/m
4 10 3
Then from equation (1.71) τ

w
i.e., f
ρC2 2
2 0.125 (i)
and, f
ρC2
Also, from equation (1.72) f α

i.e., St (ii)
2 ρCc
Substituting for f from eqn.(i) and equating the two terms in St. no. equation in eqn.(ii),
2 0.125 α
91
2ρC2 ρCc
92
α 0.125ρcC 0.125 1.13
ρC2 24
0.00588 kW/m K
2
and, Heat transfer coefficient 5.88 W/m2K
Various modifications have been made to the simple Reynolds analogy in an attempt to obtain
an equation which will give a solution for turbulent heat transfer over a wide range of Prandtl
numbers. (For very viscous oil the Prandtl number is of the order of thousands, whereas for
liquid metals it may be as low as 0.01). Equations based on modern theories of turbulent flow
give the Stanton number as a function of the Reynolds number, the Prandtl number, and the
friction factor, and in general these equations reduce to St = f/2, when the Prandtl number is
put equal to unity (see for example references 1.1, 1.3, and 1.5). Colburn found experimentally
that for a wide range of Prandtl numbers,
©3
StPr2
The term, StPr2 , is known as the Colburn j-factor.

©
3
©
f 2
Large temperature differences

When the temperature difference between the surface and the bulk of the fluid is very high,
then the property variations become large enough to be taken into consideration. It is then no
longer sufficient to use a mean film temperature to evaluate the properties, as given by
equation (??), t
tb w
i.e.,
must be known;t f sometimes
2 . The
it is variation of accurate
sufficiently each property
to use with temperature
an equation of theacross
form, the stream
Nu= Kφ v Pr , Re ,
Ts
T
|
where Ts. and Tw are the absolute temperatures at the axis of the pipe and at the pipe wall
respectively, and fluid properties are taken at the mean film temperature.
Entry length
The equations for flow in a pipe do not usually allow for the effects of the entry length. At the
entry to a heated tube the hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers start to build up on the
wall, gradually thickening until the flow becomes fully developed. In this initial region of the
tube the heat transfer coefficient is much larger since the resistance to heat flow of the
boundary layer is less, and hence an equation which neglects this effect will give a low value
for the calculated heat transfer. The effect is more marked for laminar flow than for turbulent
flow, and is much more important for fluids with high Prandtl numbers. In most heat exchange
processes the flow is turbulent and the tube length is sufficiently long to make the entry
length effect negligibly
93
small. In the case of oil coolers the flow is laminar, the Prandtl number is high, and hence the
entry effect may be appreciable.
When flow across a flat plate is considered, the characteristic dimension of length is taken as
the distance from the leading edge, and the heat transfer coefficient obtained is then the local
value at that section of the plate. The average value of the heat transfer coefficient over the
whole plate is the value to be used in calculating the heat transfer to or from the plate. It can be
shown that the average heat transfer coefficient for a heated plate over a length l is twice the
local heat transfer coefficient at a distance l from the leading edge.
Example 1.18
`
Air àt 20 C, flowing at 25 m/s, passes over a flat plate, the surface of which is maintained at
270 C. If the heat transfer from a flat plate is governed by,
Nu 0.332 Pr 1 ©
3
Re 1 ©
2
where the characteristic linear dimension is the distance from the leading edge, and all
properties are evaluated at mean film temperature, calculate the rate at which heat is
transferred per metre width from both sides of the plate over a distance of 0.25 m from the
leading edge.
Solution:
Mean film 20 270 145 C

` 418 K
temperature 2
Taking the values from tables of properties of air, we have
Cl
Pr 0.687 and Re 25 0.25 105
223214
ν 2.8
Then, Nu 0.332 0.687

1 3© 223214
©
1 2
0.332 0.882 472.5 138.4
αl
but,
k
and, α
138.4 3.49 0.0193 kW/m2 K
0.25 105
Hence the average heat transfer coefficient is,
0.0193 103 2 38.6 W/m2K

Then the rate of heat transfer from both sides of the plate over the length of 0.25 m for 1 m
width is given by
Q˙ αA∆t 38.6 0.25 1 2 270 20 4825 W
and, Rate of heat transfer 4.825 kW
94
The friction loss for the initial length of a flat plate where the boundary layer is still laminar is
given by
f 0.664 Re
1 2 ©
Hence it can be seen that the simple Reynolds analogy, given by equation (1.72), i.e., St
f
, gives for the initial length of a flat plate,
2
St 0.332 Re
©
1 2
Also,
Nu
0.332 Re
©
1 2
Pr
i.e., Nu 0.332 Pr Re 1 2
©
This is the same as the immediate equation given in example given above if the Prandtl
number is unity.
1.3.2 Natural convection

As stated previously, heat transfer by free or natural convection is due to differences in density
in the fluid causing a natural circulation, and hence a transfer of heat. For the majority of
problems in which a fluid flows across a surface, the superimposed effect of natural convection
is small enough to be neglected. When there is no forced velocity of the fluid then the heat is
transferred entirely by natural convection (when radiation is negligible). The heat transfer in
this case depends on the coefficient of cubical expansion, β , which is given by,
ρ1 ρ2 l β ∆t or ρ1 ρ2 ρ2β ∆t
where ∆t is the temperature difference between the two parts of the fluid of density ρ1 and ρ2
The upthrust per unit volume of fluid is ρ1 ρ2 g, and the velocity of the convection current is
dependent on the upthrust, i.e. natural convection depends on,
ρ1 ρ2 g ρ2β ∆tg
The heat transfer also depends on the fluid viscosity, the thermal conductivity of the fluid, and
a characteristic dimension of length. Since the coefficient of cubical expansion, β , and the
local acceleration due to gravity, g, do not have a separate effect on the heat transfer, then only
the product, β g, need be considered. For a dimensional analysis we then have,
f f
α Aµ a1 , ρ b1 , kc1, cd1, ∆te1, β g 1 , lg1 Bµ a2 , ρ b2 , kc2, cd2, ∆te2, β g 2 , lg2 etc.
Then by the same procedure of dimension analysis as in then previous work, it can be shown that
Nu KF w µc
,
β gρ2l3∆t
}
k µ2
95
.
or, Nu KF r Pr , Gr x
β gρ2l3∆t β
where, Gr
gl3∆t
µ2
ν2
Gr is the Grashof number.
In many cases of natural convection it is possible to use an approximate equation to evaluate the
heat transfer coefficient, α. For example, for natural convection from a horizontal pipe,
α 1.32 ∆t ©
1 4
when 104 $ Gr $ 109
d
and α 1.25∆t1
© 3
when 109 $ Gr $ 1012
where α is in W/m2K, ∆t is in K, and d is in m.
Example 1.19
`
A horizontal pipeòf 150 mm diameter has a surface of which is at 277 C. The room
temperature is 17 C. It is known that for a horizontal cylinder,
Nu 0.53 GrPr
©
1 4
where the properties are evaluated at the mean film temperature. Taking the coefficient of cubical
expansion, β , as 1/T, where T is the absolute temperature of the air, calculate:
(a) the rate of heat loss by natural convection per unit length;
(b)the heat transfer coefficient using the approximate
equation,
α 1.32 ∆t ©
1 4
for 104 $ Gr $ 109
d

Solution:
(a) the rate of heat loss by natural convection:
From tables, at a mean film temperature of (550 + 290)/2 = 420 K, we have, Pr = 0.686 and,
β gd3∆t
Gr
ν2
9.81 277 17 0.153 6
290 2.822 5 2
37.27 10
10
1
Note, that g 9.81 m/s2, and β
17
96
1 1
K
290
97
Substituting,
Nu 0.53 37.27 106 0.686

1 4 ©
37.7
αd
also, Nu 37.7
k
5
37.7 3.635 10 2
and, α 0.00913 kW/m K
0.15
Then from equation eq:HTTFR31
i.e., Q˙ αA tw t
then,
Q˙ 0.00913 π 0.15 1 277 17 1.119 kW
Heat loss per metre length 1.119 W
(b) the heat transfer coefficient:

©
1 4
α 1.32
277 17
1.32
17
1 4 © 1.32 6.45 8.52 W/m K 2
0.
thus, Heat transfer coefficient 8.52W/m2K

( compared with the more accurate value, 9.13 W/m2K).
For natural convection from a vertical wall the air in rising due to the convection currents
builds up a boundary layer, starting from the bottom and thickening gradually up the wall. The
heat transfer coefficient varies up the wall, and the formulae for heat transfer from a vertical
wall give the local heat transfer coefficient at a distance, l, from the bottom of the wall, where
the characteristic linear dimension to be used in the Grashof number is the length, l.
It can be shown that the average heat transfer coefficient for the wall from the bottom up to the
distance, l, is given by,
4
αav α
3
whereαav is the average heat transfer coefficient, and α the heat transfer coefficient at the section
distance, l, from the bottom of the wall.
Example 1.20
98
`
A `vertical surface 1 m high is at a temperature of 627 C, and the atmospheric temperature is
27 C. Calculate the rate at which heat is lost by convection from the surface per metre width.
For natural convection from a vertical surface take,
α 1.42 ∆t 1 4© for 104 $ Gr $ 109

l
or α 1.31∆t1
©3
for 109 $ Gr $ 1012
where all properties are at the mean film temperature, and β = 1/T, where T is the absolute air
temperature, α is in W/m2K, ∆t in K, and l in m.
Solution:
The Grashof number in such problems has the same limiting function as the Reynolds number
in fluid flow. For the lower range of Grashof numbers the flow of air due to natural convection
remains laminar on the wall surface, whereas for the larger Grashof numbers the boundary
layer on the wall is turbulent. It can be seen from the second equation above, α 1.31∆t1 3, that
when
©
the boundary layer is turbulent the heat transfer coefficient is assumed to be the same at all
parts of the wall, since α no longer depends on,the distance, l.
Mean film temperature 900 300 2 600 K

Taking properties from tables, we have,
β gl3∆t
1 9.81 l 3 327 30
© 9
Gr 303 5.128 5 2
3.65 10
ν2 10
1 1
where, β
30 273 303
Hence α 1.31∆t1
© 3
1.31 327 30 1 ©
3
1.31 6.67 8.75 W/m K 2

and,
Q˙ αA∆t 8.75 1 1 627 27 5250 W
thus, Rate of heat loss per metre width 5.25 kW

Note: expressions for α as above give average values.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
Question ONE
A steam main of 150 mm outside diameter containing wet steam at 28 bar is insulated with an
inner layer of diatomaceous earth, 40 mm thick, and an outer layer of 85% magnesia, 25 mm
thick. The inside surface of the pipe is at the steam temperature, and the heat transfer
coefficient for the outside surface of the lagging is 17 W /m2K. The thermal conductivities of
diatomaceous earth and 85% magnesia are 0.09, and 0.06 W/mK respectively.
Neglecting radiation, and the thermal resistance of the pipe wall, calculate
(a) the rate of heat loss per unit length of the pipe, and
99
`
(b) the temperature of the outside surface of the lagging, when the room temperature is 20 C.
`
[Answers: (a) 0.156 kW /m; (b) 30.5 C]
Question TWO
The temperature-time history of the centre of a large slab of material initially at a constant tem-
perature which is suddenly plunged into a fluid at a different temperature can be shown to be
given by
™
∆t p L 2Fo sin p L
e n n
∆ 2 p L sin p L cos p L
n n n n
and pnL tan pnL Bi. Where ∆te is the temperature difference at time τ, between the centre
©©
of the slab thickness and the surrounding fluid; ∆t1 the temperature difference between slab
and fluid initially; Fo the Fourier number, Kτ L2; σ the thermal diffusivity of slab; L the half-
Show that of
thickness forslab;
a case
Biwhere thenumber,
the Biot temperature
αL λof; the slabheat
α the surfaces is approximately
transfer equal to the
coefficient on slab
and ktemperature
fluid the thermal(i.e.
conductivity
α ™), and of
forslab
a reasonably long time period
surfaces; ∆te 4 π
2
©
4 Fo
∆t1 πe
Tutorial
1.16.1 A furnace wall consists of 250 mm firebrick, 125 mm` insulating brick, and 250 mm
building brick. The inside wall is at a temperature of 600 C and the atmospheric temper-
`
ature is 20 C. The heat transfer coefficient for the outside surface is 10 W/m2 K, and the
thermal conductivities of the firebrick, insulating brick, and building brick are 1.4, 0.2,
and
0.7 W/m K, respectively. Neglecting radiation, Calculate:
(a) the rate of heat loss per unit wall surface area, and
(b) the temperature of the outside wall surface of the
`
furnace. [Answers:(a) 460W/m2 ; (b) 66 C]
`
2. An electric hot-plate is maintained at a temperature of 350 C and is used to keep a
`
solution just boiling at 95 C. The solution is contained in an enamelled cast-iron vessel
of wall thickness 25 mm and enamel thickness 0.8 mm. The heat transfer coefficient for
the boiling solution is 5.5 kW /m2K, and the thermal conductivities of cast iron and
enamel are 50 and
1.05 W/m K respectively. Calculate:
(a) the resistance to the heat transfer for unit area, and the rate of heat transfer per unit
area.
(b) the rate of heat transfer per unit area if the base of the cast-iron vessel is not
perfectly flat, and the resistance of the resultant air film is 35m2K/kW.
[Answers:(a) 1.444 m2K/kW; 176.6 kW; (b) 7 kW/m2 ]
3. The wall of a house consists of two 125 mm thick brick walls with an inner cavity. The
inside wall has a 10 mm coating of plaster, and there is a cement rendering of 5 mm on
the outside wall. In one room of the house the external wall is 4 m by 2.5 m, and
contains a window of 1.8 m by 1.2 m of 1.5 mm thick glass. The heat transfer
coefficients for the
10
inside and outside surfaces of the wall and window are 8.5 and 31 W /m 2K respectively.
The thermal conductivities of brick, plaster, cement, and glass are 0.43, 0.14, 0.86, and
0.76 W/m K respectively. Assuming that the resistance of the air cavity is 0.16 m2K/W,
neglecting all end effects, and neglecting radiation, calculate the proportion of the total
heat transfer which is due to the heat loss through the window. [Answer:63.8%]
`
4. Water at 80 C flows through a 50 mm bore steel pipe of 6 mm thickness, and the atmo-
`
spheric temperature is 15 C. The thermal conductivity of steel is 48 W/m K and the
inside and outside heat transfer coefficients are 2800 and 17 W /m2K respectively.
Neglecting radiation, calculate:
(a) the rate of heat loss per unit length of pipe.
(b) the percentage reduction in heat loss for the pipe when a layer of hair felt 12 mm
thick, of thermal conductivity 0.03 W/mK, is wrapped round the outside surface.
Assume that the heat transfer coefficient for the outside surface remains unchanged.
[Answers: (a) 0.213 kW/m; (b) 85.1%]
5.A spherical pressure vessel of 1 m inside diameter is made of 20 mm steel plate. The
vessel is lagged with a 25 mm thickness of vermiculite held in position by 10 mm thick
asbestos. The heat transfer coefficient for the outside surface is 20 W /m2 K, and the
thermal conductivities of steel, vermiculite, and asbestos are 48, 0.047, and 0.21 W/m K,
respectively.
Neglecting radiation,
`
calculate the rate of heat loss
`
from the sphere when the inside
surface is at 500 C, and the room temperature is 20 C.
[Answer:2.744kW]
6.A solid copper conductor of 13 mm diameter carries a current density of 5 A/mm 2. The
conductor is electrically insulated with a thickness of rubber insulation such that the wire
temperature is kept to the minimum possible. Assuming that the surrounding air is at
`
30 C and given the following data: Data: Heat transfer coefficient for outside surface of
rubber or copper (assumed constant), 20 W/m2K; thermal conductivities of copper and
5
rubber, 380 and 0.2 W/m K; electrical resistivity of copper, 2 10 Ω mm,
calculate:
(i) the thickness of insulation;
(ii)the wire temperature at the axis;
(iii) the temperature of the outside surface of the insulation;
(iv) the wire temperature at the axis with the insulation removed and the new steady
state reached.
Give a physical explanation why any larger or smaller thickness of insulation will lead to
a higher wire temperature.
` ` `
[Answers: (a) 3.5 mm; (b) 105.6 C; (c) 82.8 C; (d) 111.3 C ]
7.(a)A gas-cooled nuclear reactor has solid fuel rods of radius, r F , thermal conductivity,
,kF , sheathed with zirconium of thickness, t, thermal conductivity, kz. The heat
transfer coefficient from the sheath to the gas in the surrounding annulus is α.
Assuming that the uniform heat generation rate per unit volume within the fuel is
q˙ g , show from first principles that the temperature difference between the axis of
the fuel
10
rod and the bulk of the coolant at any cross-section is given by,
q˙r2
F
4kF 1 v
2kF
ln 1
©
t rF
2kF
α rF t
|
kz
`
(b) At a particular cross-section in the reactor the gas mean bulk temperature is 220 C
when the internal heat generation rate in the fuel rod is 30 MW/m 3
Using the data below, calculate:

(i) the temperature at the axis of the fuel rod;
(ii) the temperature at the inner and outer surfaces of the sheath. Data Thermal con-
ductivities of reactor fuel and zirconium, 33.5 and 18.7 W/m K; radius of fuel
rod, 12 mm; thickness of sheath, 3.6 mm; heat transfer coefficient from sheath
to cooling gas, 500 W/m2K.
` ` `
[Answers: (a) 559.5 C; (b) 527.3 C; 496.9 C]
8.The concrete biological shield of a nuclear reactor is 2 m thick and can be considered to
be an infinite flat plate of uniform thermal conductivity, ,k. = 2.0 W/m K. The rate of
heat generation per unit volume due to the incident gamma radiation is given by
8.5x 3
qg He W/m
where x is the distance in metres measured from the inside surface, and H is a constant
dependent on the gamma radiation. The maximum temperature difference in the concrete
is to be limited to 4 K, and it may be assumed that the outer surface is well insulated.
Calculate the maximum allowable value of the gamma radiation on the inside surface of
the concrete in watts per square metre.
[Answer:68W/m2]
9.A large slab of` rubber of thickness 40 mm is vulcanized by heating
`
the faces using
steam at 330 `C. The required temperature at the centre is 120 C and the rubber is
initially at 20 C. Calculate the time required for the process:
(a) using the method of (a) above;
(b)using a numerical method.
9
[Take σ for rubber as 64.5 10 m2/s.] [Answer:26.4 min]
`
10.A large metal plate of thickness 200 mm is initially at a uniform temperature of 20 C.
`
One surface of the plate is in contact with ambient air at a constant temperature of 20 C,
while the other surface may be exposed to a constant net radiant heat flux of 100kW/m2
from an electric element.
Data: Thermal conductivity of plate, 45 W/m K; density of plate, 7800 kg/m 3; specific
heat capacity of plate, 0.5 kJ /kg K; heat transfer coefficient from plate to air, 200 W
/m2K, Using the above data:
(a) and assuming as an approximation that the plate temperature is uniform throughout
`
at any instant, calculate the time taken for the plate to reach 70 C from the instant
the electric element is switched on;
10
(b) estimate the temperature distribution through the plate thickness 9 min after the el-
ement is switched on using a numerical method with four space increments and a
Fourier number of 0.5.
` ` ` ` `
[Answers:(a) 6.85 min; (b) 48 C; 54 C; 91 C; 162 C; 274 C]
`
11.The wall of a large vessel is 50 mm `thick and is initially at 12.5 C throughout. A hot
fluid at a constant temperature of 500 C is suddenly pumped across the inside surface; the
outside surface may be assumed to be perfectly insulated. Given the following
information:
6
Data: Thermal conductivity of wall, 22 W/mK; thermal diffusivity of wall, 6.22 10
m2/s; heat transfer coefficient from fluid to wall, 110 W/mK.
Using a numerical method,
`
determine the time taken for the junction of wall and
insulation to reach 110 C. [Answer: 455 s]
`
12.A thick fin ofrectangular
`
cross-section, 1 m x 1 m, projects from a flat surface at 200 C
into a fluid at 20 C. Using the data below, estimate the temperature distribution in the
steady state assuming two-dimensional conduction, and hence calculate the rate of heat
loss from the fin surface per unit length.
Data Thermal conductivity of fin material, 25 W /m K; heat transfer coefficient for all parts
of the fin surface, 10 W / m2K. [Answer:2.5 kW /m]
`
13.(a)In an oil cooler` the oil enters 10 mm diameter tubes at 160 C and is
cooled to 40 C; the mean velocity of the oil in the tubes is 1.5 m/s. Calculate the
heat transfer coefficient.
For turbulent flow of a liquid being cooled take:
Nu 0.0265 Re 0.8
Pr 0.3
and for laminar flow take Nu = 3.65. Take all properties at the mean bulk
temperature and use the properties of engine oil given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Properties of engine oil.

`
t/( C) ρ/(kg/m3 ) ν/(cSt)) λ /(W/m K) c/(kJ/kg K)
40 878 251.0 0.l44 1.96
100 839 20.4 0.137 2.22
160 806 5.7 0.31 2.48
6
1 centistoke (cSt) = 10 m2/s
`
(b)In (a) above, the length of each tube is 1.2 m and the tube wall temperature is 20 C.
Allowing for the entry length effect a more accurate expression for the mean
Nusselt number over a length, L, for laminar flow is given by
Nu 1.86
µ
µ
0.14
r d/L RePr x© 1 3
where properties are at mean bulk temperature with the viscosity of the oil at the
tube surface, µw = 0.8 kg/m s. Calculate the mean heat transfer coefficient allowing
for the entry length. [Answers:(a) 50 W /m2K; (b) 177.5 W/m2K]
10
` `
14. Air at l5 C and 1 bar is to be heated to 285 C while flowing at 34.2m3 /h through a 25 mm
©
`
diameter tube which is maintained at 455 C. Assuming that the simple Reynolds anal-
©
ogy is valid, taking f 0.0791 Re 1 4, and all properties at the mean bulk temperature,
calculate the length of the tube required. [Answer:1.88 m]
15. Air flows through a 20 mm diameter tube 2 m long with a mean velocity of 40 m/s. The
` `
tube wall temperature is 150 C and the air temperature increases from 15 to 100 C.
Using the simple Reynolds analogy with all properties at the mean bulk temperature,
estimate:
(a) the pressure loss in millimetres of water in the tube due to friction,
and (b)the pumping power required. Take the mean air pressure as 1 atm.
[Answers: (a) 173 mm water; (b) 21.3 W]
`
16. Air at a temperature of 15 C is blown across a flat plate with a surface temperature of
`
550 C at a mean velocity of 6 m/s. Neglecting radiation, calculate the rate of heat transfer
per metre width from both sides of the plate over the first 150 mm of the plate. For heat
transfer from a flat plate with a large temperature difference between the plate and the
fluid, the local Nusselt number is given by
Nu 0.332 Pr 1 © 3
Re 1 ©
2
©
T w Ts
where all properties are at the mean film temperature, Re is based on the distance from
0.117
the leading edge of the plate, and Tw and T. are the absolute temperatures of the plate
and the free stream of the air. [Answer:4.39 kW]
` `
17.A wall 0.6 m high by 3 m wide is maintained at 79 C in an atmosphere at 15 C.
Neglecting end effects and radiation, calculate the rate of heat loss by natural
convection. For natural convection from a vertical flat surface take, at any distance,
x:
1 2© 1 4 © ©
1 4
Nux 0.509 Pr Pr 0.952 Gr
x
where all properties are at the mean film temperature, and /3 = 1 / T, where Tis the
absolute temperature of the bulk of the air.
[Answer:528 W]
` `
18.A wall 0.6 m high by 3 m wide is maintained at 79 C in an atmosphere at 15 C.
Using the approximations:
α 1.42 ∆t l
© f or10 Gr
1 4 4
$ $ 109
or α.
©
where α is in W /m2K, ∆t is in K, and l is in m.
1.31 ∆t
© f or101 3 9
$ Gr $ 1012
[Answer: 604 W]
LABORATORY EXERCISE
1. To find out the overall thermal conductance and plot the temperature distribution in case
of a composite wall
2. Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Insulating
Materia 3.To determine the thermal conductivity of a liquid.
10
4.To find out the temp. Distribution along the length of a Pin Fin under free convection
5.To find out the temp. Distribution along the length of a Pin Fin under forced convection
6.To find out the Heat Transfer Coefficient of vertical cylinder in natural convection.
7.Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Material
8.Determination of Critical Heat Flux.
References
1.1 : EASTOP T. D. and McCONKEY A. 1993 Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering
Tech- nologists, 5th edn. Pearson.
1.2 WELTY JR 1984 Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer 3rd edn John Wiley;
1.3 CROFT D R and LILLEY D G 1986 Heat Transfer Calculations Using Finite Difference
Equations Pavic Publications;
1.4 INCROPERA F P and DE WITT DP 1990 Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer 3rd
edn John Wiley;
1.5 ROGERS G F C and MAYHEW YR 1987 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of
Flu- ids 4th edn Basil Blackwell;
1.6 ECKERT ER and DRAKE RM 1971 Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer Taylor and Francis;
1.7 KERN D Q 1950 Process Heat Transfer McGraw-Hill;
1.8 EASTOP TD and CROFT D R 1990 Energy Efficiency Longman;
1.9 McADAMS w H 1954 Heat Transmission 3rd edn McGraw-Hill;
1.10 EASTOP TD and WATSON w E 1992 Mechanical Services for Buildings Longman.
10
Chapter 2
Heat Exchangers
Learning outcomes:
1. Explain the terminologies used in heat exchangers (HE),
2. Describe construction and working the variuos type of heat
exchangers, 3.Express heat transfer equations applicable to heat
exchangers,
4. Apply identified equations to solve heat exchangersproblems,
5. Explain practical applications of HE in different thermodynamics systems.
2.1 Introduction
One of the most important processes in engineering is the heat exchange between flowing
fluids. In heat exchangers the temperature of each fluid changes as it passes through the
exchanger, and hence the temperature of the dividing wall between the fluids also changes
along the length of the exchanger. Examples in practice in which flowing fluids exchange heat
are air intercoolers and preheaters, condensers and boilers in steam plant, condensers and
evaporators in refrigeration units, and many other industrial processes in which a liquid or gas
is required to be either cooled or heated.
There are three main types of heat exchanger: the most important type is the recuperator in
which the flowing fluids exchanging heat are on either side of a dividing wall; the second type
is the regenerator in which the hot and cold fluids pass alternately through a space containing a
matrix of material that provides alternately a sink and a source for heat flow; the third type is
the evaporative type in which a liquid is cooled evaporatively and continuously in the same
space as the coolant. An example of the latter type is the cooling tower. Very often when the
term ‘heat exchanger’ is used it refers to the recuperative type, which is by far the most
commonly used in engineering practice. This section will deal almost entirely with the
recuperative type.
2.2 Classification of Heat Exchangers

1. Based on principle of operation heat exchangers;
(a)Recuperative
10
(b)Regenerative
(c)Direct
contact
In recuperative type of heat exchangers, cold and hot fluid flow through the unit without
mixing with each other. The transfer of heat occurs through the metal wall. Examples of
recuperative heat exchangers are boilers, heaters, coolers, vaporizers, condensers etc.
Regenerative type of heat exchangers same heating surface is alternately exposed to hot
and cold fluid. Heat associated with hot fluid is stored or absorbed by pickings or solids.
The hot fluid supply is then shut off and cold fluid is passed over pickings or solids to
regenerate the heat. Example of such type of heat exchangers is re-generators of open
hearth furnace, glass melting furnace etc.
Recuperative and regenerative units can also be called as surface condensers,
In direct contact type of heat exchangers hot and cold fluids are in direct contact and
mixing Occurs among them during the process of heat transfer. Mass transfer also occurs
simultaneously. Examples of direct contact type of heat exchangers are spray columns
cooling towers, scrubbers etc.
2. Based on flow pattern the heat
exchangers; (a)Co-current
(b)Counter-current
(c)Crossflow
In co-current flow-arrangement hot and cold fluid flow in the same direction. It is also
called as parallel flow arrangement. In counter-current flow arrangement hot and cold
fluid moves in opposite directions. In cross flow arrangement hot and cold fluids move at
right angles to each other.
3. Based on function of heat exchangers;
(a) Chiller (e)Partial condense (i)Steam generator

(b)Heater (f)Vaporizer (j)Waste heat boiler
(c)Evaporator (g)Re-boiler
(d)Cooler (h)Condenser
4. Based on type of construction;
(a) Shell and tube type (d)Air cooled

(b)Bayonet type (e)Spiral type
(c)Double pipe (f)Plate type
2.2.1 Recuperative type of HE

By far the most common type of HE are the recuperative and regenerative heat exchangers. The
difference between recuperative and regenerative heat exchanger systems is that in recuperative
10
heat exchangers (commonly called recuperators), each fluid simultaneously flows through its
own channel within the heat exchanger. On the other hand, regenerative heat exchangers, also
referred to as capacitive heat exchangers or regenerators, alternately allow warmer and cooler
fluids to flow through the same channel. Both recuperators and regenerators can be further sep-
arated into different categories of exchangers, such as direct or indirect and static or dynamic,
respectively. Of the two types indicated, recuperative heat exchangers are more commonly em-
ployed throughout industry.
Parallel-flow and counter-flow recuperators
Consider the simple case of a fluid flowing through a pipe and exchanging heat with a second
fluid flowing through an annulus surrounding the pipe. When the fluids flow in the same direc-
tion along the pipe the system is known as parallel-flow, and when the fluids flow in opposite
directions to each other the system is known as counter-flow. Parallel-flow is shown in Fig-
ure 2.1(a) and counter-flow is shown in Figure 2.1(b). Let the mean inlet and outlet
temperatures of fluid A be tA1 , and tA2 , respectively, and let the mean temperatures of fluid B
at sections 1
and 2 be tB1 , and tB2 , respectively. Let the mass flow rates of fluid A and fluid B be mA and
mB respectively, and let the specific heats of fluid A and fluid B be cA and cB respectively. The
temperature difference at section 1 is tA1 tB1 ∆t1, and the temperature difference at section
2 is t t ∆t
.A B 22 Figure 2.1: Parallel-flow and
2 counter-flow heat exchangers and
the temperature distributions with
length.
Since the tube wall separating the fluids is thin it is possible to use an overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, based on equation (1.26),
1 1
i.e.,
RT A or U
U RA T
where A is the mean surface area of the
tube.
Since the resistance of the tube wall is negligibly small we can write,
1 1 1
(2.1)
U αA αB
In practice the values of αA and αB will vary along the length of the tube, but suitable mean
values can be found. A mean value of U along the tube will be assumed.
Consider any section X-X where fluid A is at tA and fluid B is at B. The temperature difference
at this section is tA tB M, and a small amount of heat, dQ˙ , is transferred across an
element of length dl. Using equation (1.20),
i.e., Q˙ UA tA tB , we have
10
dQ˙ πD dl U∆t (2.2)
where D is the mean diameter of the tube.

Fluid A increases in temperature by dtA along element dl, and fluid B increases in temperature
by dtB along element dl. Also since ∆t tA tB , we have,
d ∆t dtA dtB (2.3)
In the case of parallel-flow (Figure 2.1), temperature t A decreases with the length l, while tem-
perature tB increases with the length l. The heat given up by fluid A must equal the heat
received by fluid B, i.e. for parallel flow,
dQ˙ m˙ A CA dtA m˙ B CB dtB (2.4)
dQ˙ dQ˙
dtA and dtB
A CA BCB
m˙ m˙
d ∆t
dQ˙ 1 1
dQ˙ m˙ ˙ (2.5)
m˙ m˙
B CB
A CA
A CA m˙
Integrating equation (2.5) between sections 1 and 2
1 1
∆t2 ∆t1 Q˙ m˙ A CA
m˙
B CB
1 1
or, ∆t1 ∆t2 Q˙ (2.6)
m˙ A CA
m˙
Also, from equation (2.5), B CB
dQ˙
© d ∆t
1 m˙ A CA 1 m˙ B CB ©
therefore,
d ∆t
AC BC
and,,
1 ©
Integrating between sections 1 and 2,
d ∆t
∆t 1 © π
1 πD dl 1
m˙
A CA
m˙
B CB
d
l
∆t2 1 1
ln πDlU (2.7)
∆ m˙ m˙
10
where l is the total length of the tube. Now from equation (2.6)
1 ∆t1 ∆t2
m Q
1 B
C
m
A
C
Hence substituting in equation (2.7),
ln πDlU ∆t1 ∆t2

∆t2
∆t1 Q˙
©
or, πDlU ∆t1 ∆t2
Q˙
(2.8)
ln ∆t ∆t
In the case of counter-flow (Figure 2.1), both temperature tA and temperature tA decrease in the
direction of the length l. In place of equation (2.4) we
1 therefore have,
dQ˙ m˙ A CA dtA m˙ B CB dtB
When the same procedure as for parallel-flow is carried out equation (2.8) is again obtained; this
procedure is left as an exercise for the student.
Comparing equation (2.8) with equation (1.20), i.e., Q˙
UA tA tB , it can be seen that the
mean temperature difference, ∆¯t, is given by,
©
∆¯t ∆t1 ∆t2
ln (2.9)
ln ∆t
1 2
∆t
∆¯tln is known as the logarithmic mean temperature difference. Then we have,
Q˙ UA∆¯tln (2.10)
where A is the mean surface area of the tube, πDl.

There are several important points that should be mentioned here:
1. When one of the fluids is a wet vapour or a boiling liquid then its temperature remains
constant. Assuming fluid A to be a wet vapour, then the temperature variations are as
shown in Figure 2.2. It follows that under these circumstances the variation in
temperature of fluid B is the same whether the flow is parallel-flow or counter-flow.
2. In counter-flow the temperature range possible is greater, since, in theory, the fluid being
heated can be raised to a higher temperature than that of the heating fluid at exit. In
parallel-flow the final temperatures of the fluids must be somewhere between the initial
values of each fluid. This should be clear from Figures 2.1 (a) and 2.1(b).
3. When the product m˙ A CA is equal to m˙ B CB then the temperature difference in counter-flow
is the same all along the length of the tube. This must be the case since the heat given up
by fluid A is equal to the heat received by fluid B.
11
Referring to Figure 2.1 (b ), we have
m˙ A CA tA1 , tA2 m˙ B CB tB1 , tB2
11
Figure 2.2: Temperature variations
with length with one fluid
condensing or boiling.
, tA1 , tA2 tB1 , tB2 or tA1 , tB1 tA2 tB2
i.e., ∆¯t ∆t1 ∆t2
Note that if we attempt to substitute in equation eq:HTTFR80, under these circumstances,

then the result is indeterminate,
i.e.,
∆ ¯t
©
∆t1 ∆t2 0 0
ln
ln ∆t 1 ∆t 2 ln1 0
The proof of the logarithmic mean temperature difference given previously is not valid
when ∆t1 is equal to ∆t2 , since d ∆t is then zero.
a given mean value of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, then the logarithmic mean
temperature difference, ∆ ¯ must¯be
4.From equation Q tln,UA∆ tln, made
it can as
belarge
seen as possible.
that, It is surface
for a given found that forA,given
area,
temperature changes, ∆¯tln is always greater for counter-flow than it is for parallel-flow.
The initial temperature difference, ∆t1, is greater for parallel-flow, but the value of ∆¯tln
is always less. It follows that for given rates of mass flow of the two fluids, and for given
temperature changes, the surface area required is less for counter-flow.
Example 2.1
Exhaust gases flowing through a tubular heat exchanger at the rate of 0.3 kg/s are cooled from
` `
400 to 120 C by water initially at 10 C. The specific heat capacities of exhaust gases and water
may be taken as 1.13 and 4.19 kJ/kg K respectively, and the overall heat transfer coefficient
from gases to water is 140 W/m2K. Calculate the surface area required when the cooling water
flow is
0.4 kg/s,
(a) for parallel-flow,
(b)for counter-flow.
Solution:
Referring to Figures 2.3 and 2.4
11
(a) Surface area required in parallel-flow;
The heat exchanger is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.3. The heat given up by the exhaust
gases is equal to the heat taken up by the water,
Q˙ 0.3 1.13 400 120 0.4 4.19 t 10 95
95 `
kW i.e., t 10 66.6 C
0. .4 4
From
∆¯t equation (2.9) i.e.,
∆t1 ∆t2
ln
ln ∆t ∆t ©
1 2
Figure 2.3: Parallel-flow heat ex-
changer for Example 2.1 (a).
l r 4 00
4
10
©
120 336.6
169 K
x
10 120 66.6 1.99
66.6
i.e.,
Q˙ UA∆¯tln
and, 95 103 140 A 169
95 103 2
i.e., A 4.01 m
140 169
thus, Surface area required 4.01 m2

(b) Surface area required in counter-flow;
The heat exchanger is shown diagrammatically in`

Fig- ure 2.4. The water temperature at outlet is 66.6 C
and Q
= 95 kW as calculated in part(a). Again, from equation
(2.9) i.e.,
∆¯t
ln
∆t1 ∆t2
ln ∆t ∆t ©
1 2
r ©
120 10 400 66.6 223.4
201 K
1.11
ln 120 10 400
11
Figure 2.4: Counterflow heat ex- c hanger for Example 2.1(b).
i.e., Q˙ UA∆¯tln
and, 95 103 140 A 201
11
95 103 2
i.e., A 3.37 m
140 201
thus, Surface area required 3.37 m2
Cross-flow recuperator
A simple cross-flow recuperator is shown in Figure ??. The calculation of the mean
temperature difference is much more difficult in this case. The true mean temperature
difference depends on the ratio of the product of the mass flow and specific heat capacities of
fluids A and B, as well as on the ratio of the temperature difference between the fluids at inlet
and outlet. Tables are available of a correction factor for various values of the ratios,
tB 2 , tA 2 m˙ A CA
tB1 , tA1 and
m˙ B CB
Figure 2.5: Simple cross-flow heat

exchanger Heat exchangers.
The correction factor is multiplied by the arithmetic mean temperature difference to give the
true value of ∆¯t. When the temperature differences at inlet and outlet are not substantially
different, it is a sufficiently good approximation to use the arithmetic mean temperature
difference,
i.e., ∆¯ta tA1 , tA2 tB1 , tB2 (2.11)

2 2
It has been shown in Example 2.1 that the surface area required for a given heat flow is smaller
with counter-flow than with parallel-flow. For cross-flow the required surface area is between
that for parallel-flow and counter-flow. As with counter-flow, the outlet temperature of the
heated fluid in cross-flow can be raised to a higher temperature than the outlet temperature of
the cooled fluid (e.g. in Figure 2.5, tA2 can be higher than tB2 ); this is not possible in parallel-
flow.
11
Multipass and mixed-flow recuperators
The simple parallel-flow and counter-flow heat exchangers discussed above occur very rarely
in practice. To obtain the necessary surface area with a simple tube and annulus arrangement
the length of the tube may be too large for practical purposes. For instance, in Example 2.1 (b),
if the tube diameter were 150 mm, the length required would be,
A 3.37
l 7.15 m
πD π 0.15
In order to make the heat exchanger more compact, which is desirable from space
considerations, and also to reduce the heat loss from the outside surface, it is necessary to have
several tubes and perhaps several passes or bundles of tubes. The flow can be either cross-
flow, or a mixture of parallel-flow, counter-flow, and cross-flow. The latter case is called
mixed-flow. A typical example of a shell-type mixed-flow heat exchanger is shown in Figure
2.6. The analysis of a mixed-flow heat exchanger is complex and correction factors have been
plotted, which must be used to evaluate the mean temperature difference. The logarithmic
mean temperature difference in counter-flow is evaluated and then multiplied by the correction
factor.
Figure 2.6: Multipass shell-and-

tube heat exchanger.
Correction factors for most types of mixed-flow heat exchangers are given in ref. 2.6. Note that
when one of the fluids is a condensing vapour or a boiling liquid then the mean temperature
difference is the same whether the heat exchanger is parallel-flow, counter-flow, cross-flow, or
mixed-flow.
In certain heat exchangers of the multipass type, the mean temperature difference for counter-
flow or parallel-flow can still be used as a reasonable approximation. For example, the heat
exchanger in Figure 2.7 is essentially a counter-flow type. The larger the number of passes
made by fluid B then the nearer the heat exchanger is to pure counter-flow.
Example 2.2
A two-pass surface condenser is required to handle the exhaust from a turbine developing 15
MW with specific steam consumption of 5 kg/kWh. The condenser vacuum is 660 mm of Hg
when the barometer reads 760 mm of Hg. The mean velocity of water is 3 m/s, water inlet
`
temperature is 24 C. The condensate is saturated water and outlet temperature of cooling water
`
in 4 C less than the condensate temperature. The quality of exhaust steam is 0.9 dry. The
overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer area of tubes is 4000 W/m2 `C. The water tubes
are 38.4 mm in outer diameter and 29.6 mm in inner diameter. Calculate the following :
(i) Mass of cooling water circulated in kg/min,
11
Figure 2.7: Shell-and-tube heat ex-
changer.
(ii) Condenser surface area,

(iii) Number of tubes required per pass,
and (iv)Tube length.
Solution:
Referring to Figures 2.8
Given : di = 29.6 mm = 0.0296 m ; do = 38.4 mm = 0.0384 m ;
`
U = 4000 W/m2 `C ; V = 3 m/s ; tc1 = 24 C ; x (dryness fraction) = 0.9.
The pressure of the steam in the condenser,
760 660
ps
1.0133 0.133 bar
760
The properties of steam at 0.133 bar, from steam table, are : sa
`
= 51 C ; h = 2592 kJ/kg,
ps ` t t
f
tc1 = 51 - 4 = 47 C
The steam condensed per minute,
m˙ ˙mh 15 1000 5
s 1250 kg/min
60
(i) Mass of cooling water circulated per minute,m˙ w m˙ s
Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by water,
m˙ h x hfg m˙ c c˙ pc tc2 tc1
11
1250 0.9 2592 m˙ c 4.187 47 24
m˙ c m˙ w 30280
Figure 2.8: A
kg/min two-pass sur-
face condenser
for Q(2)(b).
(ii) Condenser surface area, A:
Q˙ m˙ s x h
f g
U (i)
60 A∆¯tln
where, ∆ ¯t
ln
∆t1 ∆t2
©
©
ln ∆t1 ∆t2
th1 tc1 th2 t c2
ln t t t t
h1 c1 h2 c2
l 5 51 24
1 24
© 51 47 27 4
47
C
ln 27 4 © 12.04`
Substituting the values in equation

51 (i), we get
1250
0.9 2592 103 4000 A 12.04
6
11
i.e., A 1009.1 m2
(iii) Number of tubes required per pass, Np:
π
mw d2i V ρ Np
4
30280 π 2
60 0.0296 3 1000 Np
4
or, N
p 30280 4 244.46 say, 245
60 π 0.0296 2 3 1000
i.e., Total number of tubes required, N 2Np 2 245 490

(iv) Tube length, L:
A πdoL 2Np
1009.1 π 0.0384 L 2 245
1009.1
L π 0.0384 2 245
or, 17.1 m.
Fouling resistance
In most heat exchangers the fluid flowing is not completely free from dirt, oil, grease, and
chemical deposits, and a coating tends to collect on all metal surfaces. This increases the
resistance to heat transfer and must be allowed for in design calculations. It is usual to allow
for the effect of this coating of dirt by adding a fouling resistance to the total thermal
resistance. Typical values of fouling resistance for 1 m 2 of surface area are: 1.8 K/kW for fuel
oil; 0.6 K/kW for river water; and 0.2 K/kW for boiler feedwater which has been treated.
Facility must be provided for easy periodic cleaning of the tubes. For a comprehensive
treatment of process heat exchangers see references 2.6 and 2.7.
Extended surface recuperators

Another form of recuperator which should be mentioned briefly is the extended surface type.
The metal wall containing a fluid to be cooled can be extended on the outside in the form of
fins, studs, or ribs. Examples of this type are the finned hot-water space-heater (sometimes
misnamed ‘radiator’) and the air-cooled cylinders of small air compressors and IC engines.
The fins on the surface give a larger outside surface area for the same internal surface area, and
hence increase the cooling effect for a given volume. Details of compact heat exchangers are
11
Figure 2.9: Compact plate-fin heat
exchanger.
given in reference 2.8, two examples are shown in Figure 2.9 and 2.10. A simple analysis of
run-around coils used for energy recovery is given in reference 2.9.
Figure 2.10: Compact plate heat ex-

changer.
2.2.2 Regenerators
In the various types of recuperator described above, the hot and cold fluids are separated at all
times by a metal wall. The characteristic feature of a regenerator is that the fluids occupy the
same space in turn or are in contact with the same matrix in turn. The fluids used in
regenerators are nearly always gaseous. When the hot gas occupies the space, it gives up heat
to the walls, or to solid matter distributed throughout the space, called a matrix. The hot gas is
then withdrawn, the cold gas enters the space and is heated by the walls and the matrix; the
process is a cyclic one and analysis is complex.
In order to have continuous operation it is usual to use two regenerators with hot gas flowing
through one, and cold gas flowing through the other at any instant. When the flows are
switched from one regenerator to the other, the hot gas is cooled while the cold gas is heated.
The period of time between the switching of the flows must be chosen to give the required heat
transfer between the two gases. This type of generator is shown diagrammatically in Figure
2.11 (a).
Another method used is the rotating matrix type, in which a cylinder containing solid inserts is
rotated so that it passes alternately through cold and hot gas streams which are sealed from
each other. An example of this type of regenerator is the Ljungstro¨m air pre-heater for boiler
furnaces, shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.11 (b ).
There are many applications for regenerators, from air pre-heaters in blast furnaces to heat ex-
changers in plants for gas liquefaction. One application of the rotating matrix type which is
becoming important is in energy conservation.
12
Figure 2.11: Two types of
regenerative heat exchangers:
stationary (a) and rotating (b)
matrices.
2.3 Heat exchanger effectiveness

In heat exchanger design the efficiency of the heat transfer process is very important. A
method due to Nusselt and developed by Kays and London for compact heat exchangers (see
reference 2.8) is described in this section.
The effectiveness, ε, of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred
to the maximum possible heat transfer. For any heat exchanger with mass flow rates of hot and
cold fluids, m˙ H and m˙ C , with specific heat capacities, cH and cC , let the overall
temperature changes of each fluid be tHi tHe and tCi tCe .; where subscripts i and e refer to
inlet and exit. Neglecting heat losses to the surroundings:
Q˙ m˙ H cH tHi tHe m˙ C cC tCi t Ce
or, Q˙ CH tHi tH e C C t Ci t Ce (2.12)
where, CH m˙ H cH and CC m˙ C cC are the thermal capacities of the hot and cold fluids. From
equation (2.12) it can be seen that the fluid with the smaller thermal capacity, C, has the greater
tHtemperature
min.
, and thischange. The maximum
ideal temperature possible
change temperature
can only change
be aspired to byof
theone of with
fluid the fluids is t
the minimum
thermal
H max.
i.e., ε Q˙
Cmin. tHmax. tHmin. (2.13)
The object of a well-designed heat exchanger is to obtain the maximum possible change of
temperature of a fluid for a given driving force, that is for a given logarithmic mean
temperature difference, ∆¯tln. Hence another useful measure of the efficiency of a heat
exchanger is the number of transfer units, Ntu, defined as
Temperature change of one fluid
Ntu
∆ln
Hence we can write for the hot fluid,
NtuH tHi tHe
12
∆
¯
t
l
12
tHi tHe
NtuH
∆¯tln
and for the cold fluid,
NtuC tCe tCi

∆¯tln
From equations (2.12) and (2.10), i.e.,
Q˙ UA∆¯tln
also,
Q˙ CH tHi tH e C C t Ci t Ce
i.e.,
Q˙ UA∆¯tln CH t H i tHe C C t Ci
t Ce
t Hi t He UA
then, t t UA
and Ci Ce
∆¯tln CH
∆¯tln CC
hence, Ntu
UA UA
and Ntu
H CH C CC
A more general definition of Ntu is as follows:
Greater of the two fluid temperature differences

Ntu ln
∆
UA
i.e., Ntu (2.14)
Cmin.
The greater the number of transfer units the more effective is the heat
exchanger.
The ratio of the minimum to the maximum thermal capacity is usually given the symbol R,
Cmin.
i.e., R C
max.
(2.15)
Note that R may vary between 1 (when both fluids have the same thermal capacity) and O
(when one of the fluids has an infinite thermal capacity, e.g. a condensing vapour or a boiling
liquid).
12
Figure 2.12 shows a typical example of a graph of effectiveness, ε, against Ntu for various
values of the thermal capacity ratio, R.
©
Consider a counter-flow heat exchanger as shown in Figure 2.13. From the figure it can be
seen that CC Cmin, since ∆tC % ∆tH , i.e., R CC CH or, using equation (2.12), i.e.,CH tHi
CC
t C t t or, tt
CH tHi tHe R
Ci
12
Figure 2.12: Effectiveness against
number of transfer units for various
values of thermal capacity ratio.
Figure 2.13: Temperature varia-

tions in a counter-flow heat ex-
changer.
Here, R tH1 tH2 (2.16)

tC tC2
1
i.e., εQ˙
Cmin. tC1 tC2 tC1 tC2 (2.17)
C t t C t t tH tC
min. Hmax. Hmin. min. H1 C2 1 2
From equation
eq:HTTFR85
UA
i.e., Ntu
Cmin.
or, N
UA tC1 tC2
tu
Cmin. ∆¯tln
From equation (2.9)
© s © y
∆¯t ∆t1 ∆t2 tH1 tC1 tH2 tC2
∆t
t 1 ∆t ln H1 C1t H2 C2t
ln
ln 2 t
12
i.e.,
N tu
t H
tC1 tC2
ln v tH 1
H2 tC2
t C1
|
tH2 t
or,
N t
t H1 t H2 t C 1 t C 2
t
ln v tH 1 t C2 t C1
H
t C2
|
tH t
v |
tH1 tH2 tC1 tC2 1
or, tH1 t C2 t C1 t C2
1 ln H H
N
tu
t C1
Introducing
(2.16),R thermal ratio, R, and effectiveness, ε, into equation
t using
t equation
tH1 tH2
1 tC tC2 1 tC2
and equation (2.17),ε tC
t H1 tC2
i.e.,
t
v t t t t
t H1 H2 C 1 C 2 | 1
ln v t C1 t C2©© ε
ε
R
t C1 t C2
|
N tC1
t C1
©©
and, N R 1 1
1 ε 1
t ln
R
then, Ntu R 1
1 ε
1 Rε
Ntu 1 R
or, ε 1e (2.18)
1 Re Ntu 1 R
Note that for a counter-flow heat exchanger when CH CC, i.e. R = 1 (say for a gas turbine heat
exchanger), then the expression for effectiveness cannot be obtained by substituting R = 1 in
equation (2.18). For this case the temperature change of each fluid is the same, since C H CC,
and hence ∆¯tln is equal to the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids which
remains constant throughout the heat exchanger. Equation (2.14) is therefore written as, Ntu
©
tC1 tC2 tH1 tC1 , and the derivation then proceeds as above, giving,
Ntu
ε 1 Ntu (2.19)
For a parallel-flow heat exchanger it can be shown that,
Ntu 1 R
1e
ε (2.20)
1 R
12
When R = 0 in the case of a condenser say, then it can be seen from equation (2.17) or equation
(2.19) that the effectiveness is
N
ε 1 e tu.
Example 2.3
12
A single-pass shell and tube counter-flow heat exchanger uses waste gas `
on the shell side to
heat a liquid in the tubes. The waste
`
gas enters at a temperature of 400 C at a mass flow rate
of 40 kg/s; the liquid enters at 100 C at a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s.
Assuming that the velocity of the liquid is not to exceed 1 m/s, using the data below: Neglect
fouling factors and the thermal resistance of the tube wall. Tube inside diameter= 10 mm; tube
outside diameter = 12.7 mm; tube length = 4 m; specific heat capacity of waste gas = 1.04
kJ/kg K; specific heat capacity of liquid = 1.5 kJ/kg K; density of liquid = 500 kg/m 3; heat
transfer coefficient on the shell side = 260 W/m2K; heat transfer coefficient on the tube side=
580 W /m2 K;
Calculate:
(a) the required number of tubes;
(b) the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger; (c)the exit temperature of the
liquid.
Neglect fouling factors and the thermal resistance of the tube wall. Tube inside diameter= 10
mm; tube outside diameter= 12.7 mm; tube length = 4 m; specific heat capacity of waste gas =
1.04 kJ/kg K; specific heat capacity of liquid = 1.5 kJ/kg K; density of liquid = 500 kg/m 3; heat
transfer coefficient on the shell side = 260 W/m2K; heat transfer coefficient on the tube side=
580 W /m2 K.
Solution:
Figure 2.14: Temperature varia-

tions in a counter-flow heat ex-
changer.
(a) Number of tubes;

Volume flow rate of liquid,V˙ 3 3
m˙ ρ 0.006 m
500
V 0.006 2
Total cross-sectional area for a velocity, c, of 1 m/s ˙
0.006 m
c 1
12
i.e., Number of tubes
0.006 4 76.39, say 77
π 0.01 2
Note: the velocity in the tubes is then less than 1 m/s as required.
2.3.1 (b) effectiveness

1
of the HE;
From equation (2.1) 1 1 , taking into account the area difference,
U αA αB
1 1 1
i.e.,
UAo αoAo αiAi
where subscripts O and i refer to the outside and inside of the tube. The overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, is referred to the outside area which is the usual practice in heat exchanger
design,
1 1 12.7
i.e., 1 Ao 0.00604 m2 K/W
U αo αiAi 260 580 10
since
Ao
A
©
Do Di
and, U 165.68 W/m2K

UA
Then from equation (2.14) i.e., Ntu .
Cmin.
165.68 π 0.0127 4 77
an O.452
3 1.5 1000
3 l .5
also, R 0.1082
40 1.
Then from equation (2.18),
Ntu 1 R
i.e., ε 1 e
Ntu 1 R
1 Re
and, ε 1e
0.452
1 0.1082
1 0.1082e 0.452 1 0.1082
or, ε 0.358
(c) Exit temperature

Also from equation (2.17), i.e., ε
tC1 tC2 ,
tH tC2
1
i.e., ε tLe 100

, 400 100
where tLe is the exit temperature of the liquid.
i.e., tLe 300 0.358 100 207.4 C `
12
13
Example 2.4
` `
In a counter-flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is heated from 25 C to 65 C by an oil with
`
a specific heat of 1.45 kJ/kg K and mass flow rate of 0.9 kg/s. The oil is cooled from 230 C to
` 2`
160 C. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 420 W/m C, calculate the following :
(a) The rate of heat transfer,
(b) The mass flow rate of water, and
(c)The surface area of the heat exchanger
Solution:
` `
Given: t = 25 C; t = 65 C, c = 1.45 kJ/kg K ; m˙ h= 0.9 kg/s;
c1 c2 p
= 160 C, U = 420 W/m2 C. (i) The rate of heat transfer, Q˙ :
` ` `
t = 230 C ; t
h1 h
Q˙ m˙ h c ph th 1 th 2
or, Q˙ 0.9 1.45 230 160 91.35 kJ/s
(ii) The mass flow rate of water, m˙ c

Heat lost by oil (hot fluid) = Heat gained by water (cold fluid)
m˙ h c ph th 1 th 2 m˙ c c pc tc 2 tc 1
91.35 m˙ c 4.187 65 25
91.35
m˙ c 0.545 kg/s
4.187 65
(iii) The surface area of heat exchanger, A:
Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD), ∆¯tln is given by;
25
∆¯tln
th1
∆t1 ∆t2
ln ∆t 1 ∆t 2
tc2 th2 tc1

©
230 65 160 25
ln t
h1 c2
i.e.,
∆¯t
t © h2 c1
t t ln 230 65 © 160 25
165 135 149.5 C

`
13
ln
ln 165 135 ©
Also, Q˙ UA∆¯tln
13
Figure 2.15: Counter-flow heat exchanger for Example 2.4.
2
Q˙ 91.35 103
And, A 1.45 m .
U∆¯t 420 149.5
l
2.4 Extended surfaces - Fins

From equation eq:HTTFR81, (Q˙ UA∆¯tln ), it can be seen that for a given heat transfer coef-
ficient and given fluid temperatures the heat transfer can be increased by increasing the heat
transfer area. One way of doing this is to increase the area on one side of the heat exchanger by
adding fins or studs which project into the fluid; the effective heat transfer area is thus
increased.
The thermal resistance on either side of a heat exchanger is 1/αA, therefore when α is very
large the resistance to heat transfer is low and hence there is no advantage in increasing the
area. One of the fluids usually has a much lower value of α than the other and hence the
resistance on this side of the heat exchanger controls the heat transfer. It is therefore on this
side that the area can be extended with advantage. (The resistance of the separating wall is
usually small compared with the resistance of the fluid film on either side.) Extended surfaces
or fins are generally used to enhance convective heat transfer rate between a solid and the
surrounding fluid.
A fin extends the surface area of heat transfer. The fin material generally has a high thermal
conductivity which is exposed to a flowing fluid.
13
Heat transfer coefficients are very high for condensing and boiling fluids; they are generally
higher for liquids than for gases, and generally higher for forced convection than for natural
convection. A typical application for an extended surface would therefore be natural
convection to air.
Fins are often seen in electrical appliances and electronics such as on computer processors and
power supplies. It is also used in industrial applications such as heat exchangers and engine
cooling. Type of Fins.
2.4.1 Type of Fins

Fins are designed and selected for a particular purpose and environment. Rectangular fins are
often used in computers for cooling, Annular fins are often used in heat exchangers.
Regardless of the shape, the heat transfer occurring in a fin is governed by the same laws.
(Con- duction, Convection, Radiation) Figures 2.16 shows the various types of fins in use.
Figure 2.16: Types of fins.
2.4.2 Deriving the Heat Equation for a Fin:

Consider an extended surface which has a constant cross-sectional area, A, which is small
compared to its length, L, so that heat transfer along it is one-dimensional (see Figures 2.17).
Figure 2.17: Extended surface of

small cross-section in a fluid of
constant temperature.
In order to setup the problem, several assumptions need to be made:

• Steady State
– Temperature is not a function of time.
• Material properties are constant ( and )
– Independent of temperature
• No internal heat generation
• Uniform convective heat transfer coefficient over surface
• One dimensional (1-D) conduction
13
– Temperature at each location is uniform over
• Radiation is negligible
Heat Transfer for a Differential Element

The Non-flow energy equation (Figures ??):
∆E = Q - W
∆E Internal energy is constant with time.

W No work is done on the system.
Generally,
Q˙ in Q˙ out
For the differential element,
Q˙ x Q˙ x ∆x Q˙ Conv. (2.21)
For a perimeter, p, and a heat transfer coefficient, α,

assumed constant with temperature and uniform over
the surface, then for the steady state,
Figure 2.18: Heat flow in differential
element
Heat loss from surface,Q˙ Conv. α P∆x t tF
where tF is the temperature of the surrounding fluid,

assumed uniform and constant.
If we rearrange equation (2.21) and divide by ∆x, we
obtain:
Q˙ x ∆x
tF 0
Q˙ x αP
t
Take the limit as ∆x 0: ∆x
dQ˙
αp t tF 0
dx
where is from Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conduction.
Q˙
i.e., the rate of heat transfer at any section, distance x from the primary surface, where the
temperature is t, is given by
dt
Q˙ kAc
d
Thus, the differential equation governing heat transfer in fins is:
d dt
kAc αp t tF 0 (2.22)
d d
13
NOTE:Both the cross sectional area, A c, and perimeter,p, are functions of x, differentiating the
first term;
dAc dt
d2t
k kAc 2 αp t tF 0
dx dx dx
Dividing through by kAc and re-arranging to get;
d2t 1 dAc dt αp
t tF 0 (2.23)
dx2 A dx dx
c
kAc
If Ac = constant, than the equation can be reduced to:
d2t αp
2 kA t tF 0 (2.24)
d c
The temperature profile in a fin is governed by a 2nd order, Ordinary Differential Equation
(ODE).
×
In order to obtain a solution to the homogeneous equation we must have two boundary
conditions (at the fin base and tip).
αp
Let, θ t tF , and, m (i)
k
d2 θ 2
m θ 0
The soln. is of the form, dx2
mx
or, θ x C e1mx C e 2
t x t C e mxC e (2.25)
F 1 2
In order to obtain an exact solution to the homogeneous equation, two boundary conditions (at
the fin base and tip) need to be known (Figures 2.19 and Figures 2.20).
One METHOD of solving equation (2.25):
Boundary Condition 2
m™
θ ™ 0Ce 1
and c1 0
Boundary Condition 1
θ 0 θB tB t™ C2 e
i.e., C2 θB tB t™
13
Figure 2.19: Tip boundary condi-
tions.
Figure 2.20: Boundary conditions

for infinitely long fin.
Solution is:
θ x θB Ce
mx
tB e
mx
t™
1
t x t™
Alternative METHOD: The solution is found by putting t tF emx then the differentiating
the resulting eqtn. twice,
d2 t tF
2 mx
i. m e
dx2
2 mx
αp mx
×
, m e 0
e kA
αp
or, m (ii)
k
Again, takingC1 and C2are constants determined from the boundary conditions:
i.e.,
(i) at x = 0, t x tF t1 tF ; therefore in equation (2.25)
m0 m0
t1 tF C1e C2e
13
and, t1 tF C1 C2 (2.26)
(ii) at the end of the extended surface the heat convected from the end is equal to the heat
conducted at the section x = L.
Assuming the same heat transfer coefficient, α, for the end then,
dt1 tF
kA αA t t (2.27)
dx xL
1 F xL

mL
dt1 tF αA mL
dx C1e C2e xL
×
xL kA
From equation (ii),
αp
dt1 tF m
kA
mL
mL
dx mC1e mC2e (iii)
xL
Integrating,
i.e., t t
C e mL
C e (iv)
1 F xL 1 2
Substituting equations (iii) and (iv) in (2.27);
mL mL
kmC emL kmC e αC emL αC e (2.28)
1
From equations (2.26) and (2.28) the values2 of C1 and C1 2 can be found,
2
and hence the solution
to equation (2.24) is,
t tF
mLx mLxα mLx mLx
m
e e e e
t1 tF mL mL α mL mL
e e
m α mk
cosh m L x sinh m L
t tF
or, t1 tF x
mk
α
cosh mL sinh mL
13
( 2 .29)
since, cosh mL emL e

mL
©
2 and sinh mL emL e
mL
2. At the end of the extended
©
surface, at x = L,
t2 tF 1
t1 tF α (2.30)
coshmL sinhmL
mk
13
The heat transfer from the extended surface, which is the same as the heat leaving the primary
surface to the fin, is given by,
Q˙ 1 kA dt1 tF (v)
dx x0
Substituting equation (2.29) in equation (v) and differentiating and putting x = 0, it can be
shown that,
©©
Q˙ 1 αA t1 tF tanh m L
1
α (2.31)
1 α mk tanh
mk
mL
From equation (2.31) it can be seen that when α/ml= 1 then, Q˙ 1 αA t1 tF , which is the
heat loss from the primary surface with no extended surface, i.e. when α = ml an extended
surface of whatever length, L, will not increase the heat transfer from the primary surface.
extended©
For α mlsurface
˙
% 1 then Q $ αA t
will increase the theatand hence This
transfer. adding ©
transfer; the surface added acts as an insulation. For α ml $ 1, then Q˙ 1 % αA t1 tF and the
a secondary
is illustrated in surface
Figure reduces
2.22. the
©
heat1 F1 Figure 2.21: Heat transfer against
length for various values of α mk.
α α2 kA ©
1 2
αA ©
1 2
Not
mk kp
©
k 2αp
Hence assuming α ml $ 1 the heat transfer becomes more effective when α/k is low for a
given geometry.
2.4.3 Approximate end condition

A simplified approach is possible by making the approximation that the loss of heat from the
end of the extended surface is negligible, i.e. at x = L
dt1 tF xL
kA dx
14
0 (vi)
14
Therefore substituting equation (2.25) in equation(vi) and differentiating, we obtain,
mL
kAm C 1emL C 2e 0 (2.32)
Solving for C1 and C1 from equations (2.32) and (2.26) we have,
t2 tF cosh m L - x
cosh mL (2.33)
t1 tF
Then at x = L,
t2 tF 1
(2.34)
t1 tF cosh mL
The heat transfer from the extended surface is obtain by substituting equation (2.33) in,
Q˙ 1 dt1 tF
kA dx
xL
and differentiating as required. The result obtained is;
Q˙ 1 mkA t1 tF tanh mL (2.35)
In most cases in practice the approximate expressions given by equations (2.33) - (2.35) can be
used instead of the more accurate expressions given by equations (2.28) - (2.31). In the
important case of compact plate-fin heat exchangers where corrugated plates are sandwiched
between flat plates (see for example Figure 2.9 , then the expressions given in equations (2.33)
- (2.35) are the accurate ones. In this case the fin bridges the two hot surfaces which may be
assumed to be at the same temperature; at the mid-point of the fin the change of temperature
with fin length is zero which corresponds to the condition of zero heat transfer. In the
equations (2.28) - (2.31) the half-width, w/2, is substituted for the length, L.
2.4.4 Rectangular section fins

For a fin of rectangular cross-section on a plane surface as shown in Figure ??, the perimeter,
P, is given by (2 + 2b) per unit length in the z-direction, and the cross-sectional area, A, is
given by b per unit length in the z-direction,
i.e., m
αp ©
1 2
α 2 2b 2α
1b
©
1 2
2α (2.36)
k k kb
©
1 2
kb
α
Also, by obtaining
and multiplying both side of the inverse of equation (2.36) with it, we
©
obtain, k
1 2 © αb 2
1 2 © ©
1 2
α α 2 kb
mk k2 2α Bi
k
where the Biot number, Bi, is based on the half-thickness of the fin, b/2.
14
Figure 2.22: Rectangular cross-
section fin on a plane surface.
2.4.5 Fin efficiency

Fin efficiency, ηF , is defined as the ratio of the heat loss from the fin surface to the heat loss
from the fin surface if it were everywhere at the temperature of the primary surface.
Using the approximate expression, equation (2.35), for Q˙ 1 , we have
Q˙ 1 mkA t1 tF tanh mL,
mk t1 tF tanh mL mktanh tanh (2.37)

i.e., η mL mL
F tF
α 2L 1 2α m
t
For a finned surface with unfinned area, Ab, and total fin surface area, AF , then for unit length
in the z-direction;
Heatloss α t1 tF Ab ηF AF (2.38)
Example 2.5
For a point in one of the hot fluid channels for a typical plate-fin
`
cross-flow heat exchanger
where the fluid mean `
temperature within the channel is 200 C and the separating plates on
either side are at 100 C, calculate:
(a)the mean temperature of a fin at that point in the heat
exchanger; (b)the fin efficiency.
Data Height of flow channel= 11.78 mm; thickness of fin= 0.203 mm; heat transfer coefficient
between the hot fluid and all surfaces= 137 W /m2 K; thermal conductivity of fin material =
168 W/m K. Solution:
Referring to Figures ??
t2 tF cosh m L x
t1 tF cosh mL
14
For this example;
D©
w 2
t t dx sinh mw/2 - x
w 2 ©
tm tF t1 tF
F
©
mw 2 cosh mw 2 © 0
0
t1 tF
© ©©
sinh mw 2
mw 2 cosh mw 2
It can be seen by reference to equation (2.37) and the above equation,
tanh mw 2
mw 2 ©©
mk t1 tF tanh mL mktanh tanh mL
i.e., η ,
F mL
1 tF m
α 2L t 2α
tm tF
that the ratio,
F is an alternative expression for fin efficiency.
1
t t
(a) mean temperature of fin
i.e., m 2α 1 2 ©
kb
and, m 2 137 1 ©
2
89.63
3
© ©
168 0.203 10
mw 2 89.63 11.78 2 103 0.5279
tm tF tanh 0.5279
an t1 tF 0.916
0.5279
m `
t 200 0.916 200 100 108.4 C
`
i.e. Mean temperature of fin = 108.4 C
(b) Fin efficiency, η Then,
tm tF 200 108.4
η
t1 tF 10
20
0.916 or 91.6%
0
0
Question ONE
An oil engine develops 300 kW and the specific fuel consumption is 0.21 kg/kWh. The exhaust
from the engine is used in a tubular water heater, flowing `through 25 mm diameter tubes,
`
entering with a velocity of 12 m/s, at 340 C and leaving at 90 C. The water enters the heater at
` `
10 C and leaves at 90 C, flowing in counter-flow to the hot gases. The air-fuel ratio of the
engine is 20, and the exhaust pressure is 1.01 bar. The overall heat transfer coefficient of the
heat exchanger when designed is found to be 56 W /m2K, but after running for some time a
14
fouling factor of 0.5 m2K/kW must be assumed. Taking the specific heat capacity and the gas
constant for the gases as 1.11 kJ/kg K and 0.29 kJ/kg K, and the specific heat capacity for the
water as 4.19 kJ /kg K, calculate:
14
(a) the mass flow rate of water;
(b)the number of tubes
required; (c)the required tube
length.
[Answers: (a) 1096 kg/h; (b) 110; (c) 1.457 m]
Question TWO
`
A flat surface at a temperature of 300`C has rectangular section cooling fins perpendicular to the
surface projecting into a fluid at 20 C. There are 12.5 fins per 100 mm and the fins have a
thickness of 3 mm and a length of 30 mm.
The thermal conductivity of the fin material is 26 W/mK and the heat transfer coefficient for all
surfaces may be taken as 40 W/m2K.
Neglecting the heat loss at the tip of each fin, calculate:
(a) the fin efficiency;
(b) the rate of heat loss from unit area of the flat
surface; (c)the temperature at the tip of each fin.
[Answers: (a) 77.5%; (b) 72.1 kW/m2; (c) 206.9°C]
Tutorial
`
1.A pipe containing dry saturated steam at 177 C is 150 mm bore and has a 50 mm
thickness of 85% magnesia covering. The steam velocity is 6 m/s and the heat
transfer coefficient may be found from
Nu 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4
where all properties are at the mean bulk temperature. The atmospheric temperature is
`
17 C and the heat transfer coefficient from a horizontal cylinder is given approximately
by
α l.32 ∆t/d 1
4 ©
The pipe wall is 7 mm thick and the thermal conductivity of the pipe metal is 50 W/m K;
the thermal conductivity of the 85% magnesia insulation is 0.06 W/m K.
Neglecting radiation, taking arithmetic mean areas for the pipe wall and lagging, and
using a trial-and-error method, calculate:
(a) the temperature of the outside surface of the
lagging; (b)the rate of heat loss from the pipe per
`
unit length. [Answers: (a) 46.3 C; (b) 104 W/m]
2. An exhaust pipe of 75 mm outside diameter is cooled by surrounding it by an annular
`
space containing water. The exhaust gas enters the exhaust pipe at 350 C, and the water
`
enters from the mains at 10 C. The heat transfer coefficients for the gases and water may
be taken as 0.3 and 1.5 kW/m2K, and the pipe thickness may be taken to be negligible.
`
The gases are required to be cooled to 100 C and the mean specific heat capacity at
constant pressure is 1.13 kJ/kg K. The gas flow rate is 200 kg/h and the water flow rate is
1400 kg/h. Taking the specific heat capacity of water as 4.19 kJ/kg K, calculate:
(a) the required pipe length for parallel-flow;
14
(b) the required pipe length for counter-
flow. [Answers: (a) 1.48 m; (b) 1.44 m]
3. In a chemical plant a solution of density 1100 kg/m and specific heat capacity 4.6 kJ/kg
3
` `
K is to be heated from 65 C to 100 C; the required flow rate of solution is 11.8 kg/s. It
is desired to use a tubular heat exchanger, the solution flowing
`
at about 1.2 m/s in 25 mm
bore iron tubes, and being heated by wet steam at 115 C. The length of the tubes must
not exceed 3.5 m. Taking the inside and outside heat transfer coefficients as 5 and 10 kW
/m2K, and neglecting the thermal resistance of the tube wall, estimate:
(a)the number of tubes, and
(b) the number of tube passes
required. [Answers: (a) 18; (b) 4]
4. In an air cooler the air is blown across a bank of tubes at the rate of 240 kg/h at a velocity
` `
of 24 m/s, the
`
air entering at 97` C and leaving at 27 C. The cooling water enters the
tubes at 10 C and leaves at 20 C, at a mean velocity of 0.6 m/s. The tubes are 6 mm
diameter and the wall thickness may be neglected. The heat transfer coefficient from the
air to the tubes may be calculated from
Nu 0.33 Re 0.6
Pr 0.33
with properties
transferat coefficient
the mean bulk
The heat fromtemperature.
the water to the tubes is given by
St
1 Pr 1 6
©©
f 2
Re 1 8© Pr
©
4
1
where f = 0.0791/Re1 and properties are at the mean bulk temperature. Assuming that
the tubes are arranged in six passes, and that the logarithmic mean temperature
difference for counter-flow can be assumed, calculate:
(a) the number of tubes required in each
pass; (b)the necessary tube length.
[Answers: (a) 7; (b) 0.528 m]
5.A two-pass shell-and-tube heat exchanger is used to condense a chemical on the shell side
`
at a rate of 50 kg/s at a saturation temperature of 80 C. The chemical enters as a dry sat-
`
urated vapour and is not undercooled during the process. Water at 10 C and a mass flow
rate of 100 kg/s is available as coolant; the velocity of the water is to be approximately
1.5 m/s. Using the data below and taking a nominal tube diameter of 25 mm, Data:
Specific enthalpy of vaporization of chemical, 417.8 kJ /kg; heat transfer coefficient for
shell side, 10 kW /m2K; fouling factor for shell side, 0.1 m2K/kW; fouling factor for tube
side, 0.2 m2K/kW.
For turbulent flow in a pipe take,
Nu 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4with properties at the mean bulk temperature.

Neglecting tube wall thickness, calculate:
(a)the number of tubes required;
14
(b) the tube length;
(c) the number of transfer units;
(d) the effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
[Answers: (a) 274; (b) 13.55m; (c) 1.253; (d)
71.4%]
6. An oil cooler consists of a single-pass, counter-flow shell-and-tube heat exchanger with
300 tubes of internal diameter 7.3 mm and length 8 m. The oil flows in the tube side
`
entering at a mass flow rate of 8 kg/s at a temperature of 70 C. Cooling water in
`
the shell side enters at a mass flow rate of 12 kg/sat a temperature of 15 C. Using the
data below: Data: Shell side heat transfer coefficient, 1000 W/m2 K; heat transfer
coefficient for the tube side given by Nu 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4 with properties as follows:
specific heat capacity of oil, 3.42 kJ/kg K; density of oil, 900 kg/m3; dynamic viscosity
of oil, 1.5
3
10 kg/ms; thermal conductivity of oil, 0.15 W/m K.
Calculate:
(a) the number of transfer units;
(b) the effectiveness of the heat
exchanger; (c)the outlet temperature of
the oil. [Answers: (a) 1.1; (b) 58.8%; (c)
`
37.7 C]
7.A double pipe heat exchanger has an effectiveness of 0.5 when the flow is counter-current
and the thermal capacity of one fluid is twice that of the other fluid. Calculate the effec-
tiveness of the heat exchanger if the direction of flow of one of the fluids is reversed with
the same mass flow rates as before.
[Answer: 0.469]
`
8.500 kg/h of oil at 120 C is to be cooled in the annulus of `
a double pipe counter-flow heat
exchanger by water which enters the inside pipe at 10 C. The inner pipe has an inside
diameter of 25 mm and a wall thickness of 2 mm, and the inside diameter of the outer
pipe is 50 mm; the effective length is 12 m. Using the data below:
Data: Oil; take Nu = 30, based on an equivalent diameter, de, given by de = 4 (flow
area)/(heat transfer area per unit length); specific heat capacity, 2.31 kJ/kg K; thermal
conductivity, 0.135 W/m K; fouling factor, 0.001 m2 K/W. Water; assume the simple
Reynolds analogy holds true, taking the velocity as 1 m/s and the friction factor, f, as
0.0002; specific heat capacity, 4.18 kJ/kg K; density, 1000 kg/m3 ; fouling factor, 0.0002
m2K/W. Neglecting the thermal resistance of the pipe wall, calculate the exit temperature
`
of the oil. [Answer: 98.8 C]
9.A condenser contains four tube passes with tubes 3 m long, 25 mm internal diameter, each
`
pass containing 100 tubes. Cooling` water enters the tubes at 20 C at the rate of 80 kg/s
when the shell side vapour is at 50 C. Before cleaning, the fouling factor on the water
side is 0.0005 m2K/W; the outside of the tubes may be taken to be clean. Neglecting the
thermal resistance of the fluid film on the outside of the tubes and the thermal resistance
of the tube wall, calculate, using the data below:
Data: Specific enthalpy of vaporization for shell side fluid, 300 kJ/kg; mean properties of
water for the temperature range considered: density, 1000 kg/m3; specific heat capacity,
©
3
4.19 kJ/kg K; thermal conductivity, 0.6 W/mK; dynamic viscosity, 0.9 10 kg/m s.
3
For heat transfer in the tubes: Nu 0.023Re0.8Pr1 .
Calculate:
14
(a)the effectiveness of the heat exchanger;
(b)the condensation rate;
(c)the fouling factor required on the water side if the effectiveness is to be increased to
0.7 for the same mass flow rate of water.
[Answers: (a) 0.337; (b) 11.3 kg/s; (c) 0.000049 m2 K/W]
10. In a closed-cycle gas turbine plant air from the compressor enters one side of a compact
`
heat exchanger at 150 C at a mass flow rate of 10 kg/s. The air leaving the turbine enters
`
the heat exchanger at 504 C and flows in counter-flow to the air. The heat exchanger has
a flow area of 0.144 m2 and an effective heat transfer area of 115.2 m2 per unit length in
the direction of flow on both the hot and cold sides of the heat exchanger. Calculate the
required length of the heat exchanger to obtain an effectiveness of 0.7.
[Assume that the heat exchanger surfaces are clean and neglect the thermal resistance
of the separating plates. For flow of air in the heat exchanger passages assume Nu
0.023Re0.8Pr0.3 based on an equivalent diameter given by 4 (flow area)/(heated surface
area per unit length); take the properties at the mean temperature between the cold air
inlet and the hot air inlet. [Answer: 1.257 m]
11. Circular cross-section studs of radius 10 mm, length 100 m, thermal conductivity
24 W/mK are attached to a flat surface with their axes perpendicular
`
to the surface
on a square `pitch of 30 mm. The primary surface is at 300 C.
A fluid at 50 C is forced across the surface such that the mean heat transfer coefficient is
100 W/m2 K.
Calculate the rate of heat loss per unit area of studded surface.
[Assume that the heat transfer coefficient is the same for the primary surface and for the
rod surfaces.]
[Answer: 77.66 kW/m2]
LABORATORY EXERCISE
1. To calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for parallel flow heat exchanger.
2. To calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient for counter current flow heat
exchanger. 3.To find the heat transfer co-efficient for Drop-wise condensation.
4.To find the heat transfer co-efficient for Film-wise condensation process.
5.Determination of LMDT and Effectiveness in a Parallel Flow and
6.Counter Flow Heat Exchangers. Determination of Effectiveness on a Metallic fin.
References
edn John Wiley;
14
Flu- ids 4th edn Basil Blackwell; 2.6 ECKERT ER and DRAKE RM 1971 Analysis of Heat
and Mass Transfer Taylor and Francis; 2.7 KERN D Q 1950 Process Heat Transfer McGraw-
Hill;
2.8 WALKER G 1990 Industrial Heat Exchangers 2nd edn McGraw-Hill;
2.9 KAYS w Mand LONDON AL 1984 Compact Heat Exchangers 3rd edn McGraw-Hill;
2.12 EASTOP TD and WATSON w E 1992 Mechanical Services for Buildings Longman.
15
Chapter 3
Heat transfer by radiation
Learning outcomes:
1. Explain the terminologies used in the study of
radiation, 2.Describe heat transfer processes of radiation,
3.Derive the expressions heat transfer from and to different surfaces,
4.Apply derived equations of radiation to solve problems,
5.Relate given radiation mechanism and processes to their practical applications in thermo-
dynamics systems.
3.1 Introduction
‘Radiation’ heat transfer is defined as “the transfer of energy across a system boundary by
means of an electromagnetic mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature difference.”
Whereas the heat transfer by conduction and convection takes place only in the presence of
medium, radiation heat transfer does not require a medium.Both the amount of radiation and
the quality of radiation depend upon temperature. The dissipation from the filament of a
vacuum tube or the heat leakage through the evacuated walls of a thermos flask are some
familiar examples of heat transfer by radiation.
The contribution of radiation to heat transfer is very significant at high absolute temperature
levels such as those prevailing in furnaces,combustion chambers, nuclear explosions and in
space applications. The solar energy incident upon the earth is also governed by the laws of
radiation.
Radiant energy (being electromagnetic radiation) requires no medium for propagation and will
pass through a vacuum. Heat transfer by radiation is most frequent between solid surfaces,
although radiation from gases also occurs. The energy which a radiating surface releases is not
continuous but is in the form of successive and separate (discrete) packet or quanta of energy
called photons. The photons are propagated through space as rays; the movement of swarm of
photons is described as electromagnetic waves. The photons travel (with speed equal to that
of light) in straight paths with unchanged frequency; when they approach the receiving surface,
there occurs reconversion of wave motion into thermal energy which is partly absorbed,
reflected or transmitted through the receiving surface (the magnitude of each fraction depends,
upon the nature of the surface that receives the thermal radiation).Certain gases emit and
absorb radiation on certain wavelengths only, whereas most solids radiate over a wide range of
wavelengths.
15
All types of electromagnetic waves are classified in terms of wavelength and are propagated at
the speed of light (c) i.e., 3 × 108 m/s. The electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Figure 3.1.
The distinction between one form of radiation and another lies only in its frequency (f) and
wavelength (γ) which are related by
c γ f
7 4
The emission of thermal radiation (range lies between wavelength of 10 m and 10 m) de-
pends upon the nature, temperature and state of the emitting surface. However, with gases the
dependence is also upon the thickness of the emitting layer and the gas pressure.
Note:The rapidly oscillating molecules of the hot body produce electromagnetic waves in hy-
pothetical medium called ether. These waves are identical with light waves, radio waves and X-
rays, differ from them only in wavelength and travel with an approximate velocity of 3 108
m/s. These waves carry energy with them and transfer it to the relatively slow-moving
molecules of the cold body on which they happen to fall. The molecular energy of the later
increases and results in a rise of its temperature. Heat traveling by radiation is known as radiant
heat.
Figure 3.1: Spectrum of electro-

magnetic radiation.
Thermal radiations exhibit characteristics similar to those of visible light, and follow optical
laws. These can be reflected, refracted and are subject to scattering and absorption when they
pass through a media. They get polarised and weakened in strength with inverse square of
radial distance from the radiating surface.
Some of the properties are:
• It does not require the presence of a material medium for its transmission.
• Radiant heat can be reflected from the surfaces and obeys the ordinary laws of reflection.
• It travels with velocity of light.
• Like light, it shows interference, diffraction and polarisation etc.
• It follows the law of inverse square.
The wavelength of heat radiations is longer than that of light waves, hence they are invisi-
ble to the eye.
3.2 Surface Emission Properties

The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends upon the following factors :
15
(i)The temperature of the surface,
(ii)The nature of the surface, and
(iii) The wavelength or frequency of radiation.
The parameters which deal with the surface emission properties are given below :
(a) Total emissive power (E˙ ).
The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit
area per time. It is expressed in W/m2. The emissive power of a black body, according to
Stefan - Boltzmann, is proportional to absolute temperature to the fourth power.
E˙ b σ T4 W/m2 (3.1)
E˙ b σ AT4 W (3.1a)
8
where, σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 10 W/m2K4.
(b) Monochromatic (spectral) emissive power (E˙ 1 ). It is often necessary to determine
the spectral distribution of the energy radiated by a surface. At any given temperature the
amount of radiation emitted per unit wavelength varies at different wavelengths. For this
purpose the monochromatic emissive power E˙ γ of the surface is used. It is defined as
the rate of energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength.
The total emissive power is given by;
E˙ E in f
ty Eγ dγ (3.2)
0
(c)Emission from real surface-emissivity. The emissive power from a real surface is given by
E˙ εσ AT4 W (3.3)
where, ε = emissivity of the material.

Emissivity(ε). It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also
defined as the ratio of the emissive power of any body to the emissive power of a black
E˙
body of equal temperature i e.,ε . Its values varies for different substances ranging
˙
from 0 to 1. For a black body ε = 1, Eforb a white body surface ε = 0 and for grey bodies it
lies between 0 and 1. It may vary with temperature or wavelength.
(d)Intensity of radiation.
(e)Radiation density and
pressure.
(f)Radiosity (J). It refers to all of the radiant energy leaving a surface.
(g)Interrelationship between surface emission and irradiation properties
15
3.3 Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity
When incident radiation also called irradiation (defined as the total incident radiation on a
surface from all directions per unit time and per unit area of surface), expressed in W/m2 and
denoted by (G) impinges on a surface, three things happens ; a part is reflected back (Gr), a
part is transmitted through (Gt), and the remainder is absorbed (Ga) depending upon the
characteristics of the body, as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Absorption, reflection

and transmission of radiation.
By the conservation of energy principle,

Ga Gr Gt G
Dividing both sides by G, we get
Ga Gr Gt G
G G G G
α ρ τ 1 (3.4)
where, α Absorptivity(or fraction of incident radiation absorbed),

ρ Reflectivity(or fraction of incident radiation reflected), and
τ Transmittivity(or fraction of incident radiation transmitted).
When the incident radiation is absorbed, it is converted into internal energy.
For most solids and liquids encountered in engineering the amount of radiation transmitted
through the substance is negligible, and it is possible to write
α ρ 1
Black body: For perfectly absorbing body, α = 1, ρ = 0, τ = 0. Such a body is called a ‘black
body’ (i.e., a black body is one which neither reflects nor transmits any part of the incident
radiation but absorbs all of it). In practice, a perfect black body (α = 1) does not exist. However
15
its concept is very important. Opaque body: It is a body on whose there is no incident
radiation is transmitted through it.
For the opaque body τ = 0, and equation reduces to
α ρ 1 (3.5)
Solids generally do not transmit unless the material is of very thin section. Metals absorb radi-
ation within a fraction of a micrometre, and insulators within a fraction of millimetre. Glasses
and liquids are, therefore, generally considered as opaque.
White body: If all the incident radiation falling on the body are reflected, it is called a ‘white
body’. For a white body, ρ = 1, α = 0 and τ = 0.
Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (and their mixture such as air) have a
transmissivity of practically unity. Reflections are of two types (Figure 3.3): 1. Regular
(specular) reflection 2. Diffuse reflection.
Figure 3.3: Regular and diffuse re-
flections.
Specular reflection - implies that angle between the reflected beam and the normal to the
surface equals the angle made by the incident radiation with the same normal. Reflection from
highly polished and smooth surfaces approaches specular characteristics.
Diffused reflection - the incident beam is reflected in all directions. Most of the engineering
materials have rough surfaces, and they give diffused reflections.
Grey body: If the radiative properties, α, ρ, τ of a body are assumed to be uniform over the
entire wavelength spectrum, then such a body is called grey body. A grey body is also defined
as one whose absorptivity of a surface does not vary with temperature and wavelength of the
incident radiation [α α γ = constant.] A coloured body is one whose absorptivity of a surface
varies with the wavelength of radiation [[α j α

γ ].
3.4 Black-body radiation

As already stated an ideal body which absorbs all the radiation which falls upon it is called a
black body. For a black body, α = 1 and ρ = 0. It should be noted that the term ‘black’ in this
context does not necessarily imply black to the eye. A surface which is black to the eye is one
which absorbs all the light incident upon it, but a surface can absorb all the thermal radiation
incident upon it without necessarily absorbing all the light ( e.g. snow is almost ‘black’ to
thermal radiation, α = 0.985). Although no totally black body exists in practice, many surfaces
approximate to the definition. For example, consider a small object radiating energy in a large
space, as shown in Figure 3.4. The energy striking the surface surrounding the body is
reflected
15
and absorbed many times by the surface, and the fraction of energy reflected back and
intercepted by the body is exceedingly small.
Therefore, when a body is placed in large surroundings
the surroundings are approximately black to thermal
radiation.
As a better example of a black body, consider a small
hole in the surface of a wall, as shown in Figure 3.5.
The hole leads into a small chamber as shown. Rays
of thermal radiation entering the hole are successively
absorbed by the walls of the chamber such that only a
negligible amount of radiation is emitted from the
hole.
Thus the hole acts as a black body. This is the closest
approximation to a black body which can be devised in Figure 3.4: Radiation from a small
practice; the inside surfaces of the chamber can be body in large surroundings.
made of a material with a high absorptivity ( e.g.
lampblack).
Another example of a black body is a hollow
enclosure with a very small hole for the passage of
incident radiation as shown in Figure 3.6. Again, a
small fraction of incident radiant energy is reflected as
it strike the surface. After a number of such
reflections the amount un-
absorbed is exceedingly small and very little of the original incident energy is reflected back
out of the opening. A small hole leading into a cavity (Hohlraum) thus acts very nearly as a
black body because all the radiant energy entering through it gets absorbed. Isothermal
furnaces, with small apertures, approximate a black body and are frequently used to calibrate
heat flux gauges, thermometers and other radiometric devices.
Figure 3.6: Concept of a black
body.
It can be shown that a black body, as well as being the

best possible absorber of radiation, is also the best pos-
sible emitter. Consider an enclosure at a uniform tem-
perature, and let a black body be placed in the enclo-
sure as shown in Figure 3.7. If the body is at the same
temperature as the enclosure then it follows that all the
energy radiated by the body and absorbed by the walls
15
of the enclosure, must exactly equal the energy
radiated by the enclosure and absorbed by the body. If
this were not so then the body would gain or lose
energy, and this is not possible in an isolated system,
by the laws of thermodynamics. Let the emissive
power of the black body be EB. Therefore the rate at
which energy impinges on
unit surface of the black body is also E˙ B .
Now replace the black body by any other body at the
same temperature, and of the same shape and size.
This body must receive exactly the same amount of
energy from the enclosure as the black body received
when it
was in the same position in the enclosure. However, this body is not black and hence will only
absorb a fraction of the energy it receives,
i.e., Rate of energy absprotion αE˙ B

where α is the absorptivity of the body.
Now as before the energy absorbed must be equal to
the energy emitted, therefore if the body has an
emissive power of E˙ , we have
E˙ αE˙B
Figure 3.7: Radiation from a body to a
or, α E˙ (3.6) surrounding enclosure.
Ė B
Since α $ 1 then E˙ $ E˙ B , and hence the black

body is the best possible emitter of radiation. The
ratio of the emissive power of a body to the
emissive power of a black body is called the
emissivity, ε.
3.5 Kirchhoff’s Law

The law states that at any temperature the ratio of total
emissive power E˙ to the total absorptivity α is a con-
stant for all substances which are in thermal equilib-
rium with their environment.
Let us consider a large radiating body of surface area
A which encloses a small body (1) of surface area A1
(as shown in Figure 3.8. Let the energy fall on the unit
surface of the body at the rate E˙ b of this energy,
generally, a fraction α, will be absorbed by the small
body. Thus this energy absorbed by the small body (1)
is α1 A1 E˙ b , in which α1 is the absorptivity of the body.
When thermal equilibrium is attained, the energy
absorbed by the body (1) must be equal to the energy
emitted, say, E1 per unit surface. Thus, at equilibrium,
we may,
131
Figure 3.8: Derivation of Kirchhoff’s
law..
A1 E˙ 1 al pha1 A1 E˙ b (3.7)
Now we remove body (1) and replace it by body (2)

having absorptivity α2. The radiative energy impinging
on the surface of this body is again E˙ b . In this case,
we may write,
A2 E˙ 2 al pha2 A2 E˙ b (3.8)
By considering generality of bodies, we obtain
E˙ 1 E˙ 2 E˙
E˙b α1 α2 α (3.9)
Also, as per definition of emissivity ε, we have
E˙
ε
E˙b
or, ˙
E˙ b E (3.10)
ε
By comparing equations (3.9) and (3.10), we obtain
ε α (3.11)
(α is always smaller than 1. Therefore, the emissive power E˙ is always smaller than the
emissive power of a black body at equal temperature). Thus, Kirchhoff’s law also states that
the emissivity of a body radiating energy at a temperature, T, is equal to the absorptivity of the
body when receiving energy from a source at a temperature, T.
3.6 The grey body

In the foregoing sections it has been assumed that the energy emitted by thermal radiation is
the same for all wavelengths of the radiation. In fact this is not the case, and Figure 3.9 shows
the emissive power per unit wavelength plotted against wavelength, λ , in micrometres for a
black body at any one temperature. A corresponding curve at the same temperature is shown
for a non-black body. The ratio of an ordinate of each curve at any wavelength gives the
emissivity, and hence the absorptivity, at that wavelength. For example, at a wavelength of 4.5
micrometres (µm), we have
AB
ελ αλ
A
The terms ελ ; and αλ , are called the monochromatic emissivity and the monochromatic absorp-
tivity respectively.
It can be seen from Figure 3.9 that the monochromatic emissivity varies with wavelength. The
variation is greater for some materials than for others, and there are certain materials for which
13
Figure 3.9: Emissive power against
wavelength for a black body and a
non-black body.
the emissivity is practically constant over the entire waveband (e.g. slate rock). To simplify
calculations, surfaces in practice are very often assumed to have a constant emissivity over all
wavelengths and for all temperatures. Such an ideal surface is called a grey body. Then, for
a grey body,α and ε at all temperatures, where α ε are the total absorptivity and the total
emissivity over all wavelengths.
It is an experimental fact that the emissive power of a body increases as the temperature of the
body is increased. This is illustrated in Figure 3.10 in which the emissive power of a black
body per unit wavelength is plotted against the wavelength in micrometres, for several
temperatures. It can be seen that the wavelength which gives maximum emissive power
becomes smaller as the temperature is increased, and hence more and more of the energy
emitted is radiated over the shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases. The value of the
wavelength for maximum emissive power is given by Wien’s law
2900
i.e., λmax (3.12)
T
where λmax is in micrometres and T is in K.
Figure 3.10: Emissive power

against wavelength for a black
body and a non-black body.
The limits of the visible spectrum are λ = 0.4 micrometre at the blue end and λ = 0.8
micrometre at the red end. Now the sun has a temperature of approximately 6000 K, hence,
using equation (3.12), the maximum wavelength of the radiation is
2900
λmax 0.483 micrometres
60
13
Therefore most of the thermal radiation from the sun is in the visible waveband. The waveband
for light is shown shaded in Figure 3.10. At a temperature of 800 K a very small amount of the
energy emitted is just within the red end of the visible spectrum. A surface at 800 K will
appear as a dull red colour. At about 1250 K more of the energy emitted is in the visible range
and the surface is then said to be red-hot. The temperature of the filament of an electric light
bulb is approximately 2800 K, and even at this temperature only about 10% of the energy
emitted is in the visible region, which shows the inefficiency of such a bulb as a light source.
For a grey body a set of curves exactly similar to those of Figure 3.10 can be drawn, with
each ordinate only a fraction, ε, of the corresponding ordinate of the curves of Figure 3.10. In
practice, although a suitable total value of the absorptivity may be taken for a large number of
industrial surfaces over a wide range of wavelengths, nevertheless there is still a variation of
total absorptivity with temperature. This is illustrated in Figure 3.11. When the temperature
range is small the approximation that α ε = constant, for a grey body, is still sufficiently
accurate for most calculations. Materials or surfaces for which the emissivity varies
considerably and irregularly with wavelengths and temperature are called selective emitters.
Some values of total emissivity over all wavelengths but for different temperatures are shown
in Table 3.1.
Figure 3.11: Absorptivity against

surface temperature for various
materials.
Surface finish plays a large part in determining the emissivity of a material. When the surface
is very smooth it reflects radiation specularly; when the surface is rough, as in most practical
cases, it reflects diffusely. Rough surfaces are much better absorbers and hence much better
emitters - of radiation than smooth surfaces.
Table 3.1: Emissivities of some surfaces at various temperatures
Enmissivity
` ` ` `
Surface 0-40 C 120 C 260 C 540 C
White paint 0.95 0.94 0.88 0.70
Black glossy paint 0.95 0.94 0.90 0.85
Lampblack 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.97
Building brick 0.93 0.93 0.79 0.74
Concrete 0.85 0.84 0.69 0.69
Polished steel 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.14
13
For mild steel, rough turned, ε at 15`C is 0.87; for mild steel, well finished on a lathe, ε at
15`C is 0.39; and it can be seen from Table 3.1 that when the steel is polished the emissivity,
εe, is reduced to 0.07.
3.7 The Stefan-Boltzmann law

It was found experimentally by Stefan, and proved theoretically by Boltzmann, that the
emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature, and this is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law,
i.e.,
©
E˙ B σ T4 (3.13)
8
the value of σ is 5.67 10 W m2 K 4. The rate of energy emitted by a non-black body is then
given by
E˙ B εσ T4 (3.14)
where ε is the emissivity of the body.
Consider a body 1 of emissivity ε1 at a temperature T1, completely surrounded by black sur-
roundings at a lower temperature T 2. The energy leaving body 1 is completely absorbed by the
surroundings, and from equation (3.14).
Rate of energy emission E˙ B ε1 σ T4

1
The rate of energy emitted by the black surroundings is given by equation (3.13)
i.e.,
E˙ B σ T24
Now the fraction of this energy which is absorbed by body 1 depends on the absorptivity of body
1. For a grey body α ε at all temperatures and hence,
Rate of energy absorption εσ T4 E˙ B εαT4
1 1
Then the rate of heat transferred from the body to its surroundings per square metre of the body
is
q˙ εσ T4 εσ T4
1 2
i.e., q˙ εσ T4 T4 (3.15)
1 2
If the emissivity of the body at T1 is largely different from the emissivity of the body at T2 then
the approximation of the grey body may not be sufficiently accurate. In that case it is a good
approximation to take the absorptivity of the body 1 when receiving radiation from a source at
T2 as being equal to the emissivity of body 1 when emitting radiation at T1.
Then,
q˙4 εT σ T4 εT σ (3.16)
T
1 1 1 2
13
The absorptivity, while depending mainly on the temperature of the source of radiation, also
depends on the temperature of the surface itself. For most metals this factor can be important
and it has been shown that the absorptivity of a metal surface at T1 for radiation from a source
Ô
at T2 is approximately equal to the emissivity of the surface when at a temperature, T3, given
by
T3 T 1T2 (3.17)
Example 3.1
` ` `
A body at 1000 C in black surroundings at 500 C has an emissivity of 0.42 at 1000 C and an
`
emissivity of 0.72 at 500 C. Calculate the rate of heat loss by radiation per m2 .
(a) When the body is assumed to be grey with ε = 0.42.
(b)When the body is not grey.
Assume that the absorptivity is independent of the surface temperature.
Solution:
(a) Grey
Given: T body:
= 1000 +273 = 1273, ε at 1000 C = 0.42
1 `
`
T = 500 +273 = 773, ε at 500 C = 0.72
2
8
σ 5.67 10
Heat loss per m2 by radiation using equation (3.15),
i.e., q˙ εσ T4 T4 ,
1 2
and,
8 4 4
q˙ 0.42 5.67 10 1273 773 54893 W
i.e., Rate of heat loss per square metre by radiation 54.893kW

(b) the body is not grey:
` `
Absorptivity when the source is at 500 C is = the emissivity when the body is at 500 C,
i.e., absorptivity,α 0.72
8
Then,energy emitted εσ T4 0.42 5.67 10 1273 4
1
8 4
and, energy absorbed εσ T4 0.72 5.67 10 773
1
i.e., q˙ Energy emitted - Energy absorbed
8 8
0.42 5.67 10 1238 4 0.72 5.67 10 773 4
62538 14576 47962 W
i.e., Heat loss per m2by radiation 47.962 kW.
Rate of heat loss per square metre by radiation 47.962 kW

It can be seen that the grey body assumption of part (a) overestimates by
13
54.893 47.962
100 14.5%
47.962
Example 3.2
`
Calculate the rate of
`
heat loss by radiation from ùnit surface area of a body at 1100 `C in black
surroundings at 40 C, when the emissivity at 40 C is 0.9, and the emissivity at 1100 C is as in
Example 3.1:
(a) when the body is grey with ε = 0.4;
(b)when the body is not grey.
Assume that the absorptivity is independent of the surface temperature. Solution:
(a) Grey
Given: T body:
= 1100 +273 = 1373, ε at 1100 C = 0.4
1 `
`
T = 40 +273 = 313, ε at 40 C = 0.9
2
8
σ 5.67 10
Heat loss per m2 by radiation using equation (3.15),
i.e., q˙ εσ T4 T4 ,
1 2
and,
8 4 4
q˙ 0.4 5.67 10 1373 313 80380 W
i.e., Rate of heat loss per square metre by radiation 80.38kW

(b) the body is not grey:
` `
Absorptivity when the source is at 500 C is = the emissivity when the body is at 500 C,
i.e., absorptivity,α 0.72
8
Then,energy emitted εσ T4 0.4 5.67 10 1373 4
1
8 4
and, energy absorbed εσ T4 0.9 5.67 10 313
1
i.e., q˙ Energy emitted - Energy absorbed
8 8
0.4 5.67 10 1373 4 0.9 5.67 10 313 4
80598 490 80108 W
i.e., Heat loss per m by radiation 80.108 kW.
2
Rate of heat loss per square metre by radiation 80.108 kW

It can be seen that the grey body assumption of part (a) overestimates by
80.38 80.11
100 0.337%
80.
13
It can be seen from Examples 3.1 and 3.2 that the grey body assumption gives a very accurate
approximation when one of the temperatures is small compared with the other. The assumption
also gives a very accurate approximation when both temperatures are small.
3.8 Planck’s Law

In 1900 Max Planck showed by quantum arguments that the spectral distribution of the
radiation intensity of a black body is given by;
E˙ λ & b 2πc2h 1
(3.18)
5
hc
λ
e λkT 1
where, E˙ λ b Monochromatic (single wavelength) emissive power of a black

body, c Velocity of light in vacuum,2.998 108 3 108 m/s,
34
h Planck’s constant 6.625 10 js,
λ Wavelength,µm,
23
k Boltzmann constant 1.3805 10 J/K, and
T Absolute temperature, K.
Hence the unit of E˙λ b is W/m2 µm

Quite often the Planck’s law is written
as,
C1
E˙ 1
lambda5 (3.19)
C2
λb
e λT 1
where, C1
ch
2πc2 h 3.742 108 W µm4 m2 ; ©
C2 k1.4388104µmK
Equation (3.18) is of great importance as it provides quantitative results for the radiation from
a black body.
3.9 Wien’s Displacement Law

In 1893 Wien established a relationship between the temperature of a black body and the wave-
length at which the maximum value of monochromatic emissive power occurs. A peak
monochromatic emissive power occurs at a particular wavelength. Wien’s displacement law
states that the product of λmax and T is constant, i.e.,
13
λmaxT constant (3.20)
C1 1
and, E˙ λ
E˙ λ
λ e C2
becomes maximum (if T remains constant) when
b
© λT
b
d E˙
0
λ dλ
b
d E˙ λ
i.e.,
b d C1 5 C ©1 λT
0
v |
dλ dλ λ e 2 1
e
©
C2 λ T
1 5C λ
6
C λ
5
e
©
C2 λ T C2 1
1 1 T
and, λ 0
e ©
C2 λ T
1
2
or, 5C λ
6
e
©
C2 λ T
5C λ
6
C C λ
5 1
e
©
C2 λ T
0
1 1 1 2
λ 2T
6
Dividing both side by 5C λ , we get
1
e
C2 λ T© 1
1
C2
1
e
C2 λ T © 0
5 λT
Solving this equation by trial and error method, we get
C2 C2
λ T or λmaxT 4.965
C 4
λmaxT 1.439 10
4.965 2 µmk 2898 µmk 2900 µ
4
i.e., λmaxT 2898 µmk (3.21)
This law holds true for more real substances ; there is however some deviation in the case of a
metallic conductor where the product λmaxT is found to vary with absolute temperature. It is
used in predicting a very high temperature through measurement of wavelength. A
combination of Planck’s law and Wien’s displacement law yields the condition for the
maximum monochromatic emissive power for a black body.
5
˙Eλ b
C1 λmax
e C2 m T
1
©
0.374
λ 10
15
2.898 10 3
5
e ©
1.4388 10 2 2.898 10 3
1
13
5
E˙ λ b 1.285 10 T5 W/m2 per metre wavelength (3.22)
m
3.10 Intensity of radiation, Lambert’s law and the geometric

factor
When a surface element emits radiation, all of it will be intercepted by a hemispherical surface
placed over the element. The intensity of radiation (I) is defined as the rate of energy leaving
a surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal
to the mean direction in space. A solid angle is defined as a portion of the space inside a
sphere enclosed by a conical surface with the vertex of the cone at the centre of the sphere. It
is measured by the ratio of the spherical surface enclosed by the cone to the square of the
radius of the sphere ; it unit is steradian (sr). The solid angle subtended by the complete
hemisphere is 2
2πr
given by: 2 2π Figure 3.12 (a) shows a small black surface of area dA (emitter) emitting
radiation in rdifferent directions. A black body radiation collector through which the radiation
pass is located at an angular position characterised by zenith angle θ towards the surface
normal and angle φ of a spherical coordinate system. Further the collector subtends a solid
angle dω when viewed from a point on the emitter. Let us now consider radiation from the
elementary area dA1 at the centre of a sphere as shown in Figure 3.12. Suppose this radiation is
absorbed by a second elemental area dA2, a portion of the hemispherical surface.
The projected area of dA1 on a plane perpendicular to the line joining dA1 and dA2 = dA1 cos θ .
dA2
Then, dA2
r2
(a) Special distribution of radi-(b) Illustration for evaluating

ations emitted from a surface area dA2
Figure 3.12: Radiation from an elementary surface.
Most surfaces do not emit radiation strongly in all directions; the greater part of the energy
emitted is in a direction normal to the surface. Before considering the interchange of energy
between two bodies which receive only a part of the radiation emitted by each other, it is
necessary to find out how the radiation is distributed in the various directions from the two
surfaces. The rate of energy emission from unit surface area through unit solid angle, along a
normal to the surface, is called the intensity of normal radiation, iN . The intensity of radiation
in any other direction at any angle φ to the normal is denoted by iφ , (Note: a surface subtends
a solid angle at a point
distance r from all points on the surface, equal to the surface area divided by r2. The surface of
14
a sphere is 4πr2 and hence the solid angle subtended by the surface of the sphere at its centre is
4π.)
The variation in the intensity of radiation is given by Lambert’s cosine law,
i.e., iφ iN cos φ (3.23)
The rate of energy emission from a surface of area dA is then given by,
Ei φ dw dA
where dw is a small solid angle.

Consider a small area dA, and consider the radia-
tion from dA which passes through a small
element of the surface area of a hemisphere with
dA at its centre, as shown in Figure 3.13. The
element subtends an angle φ at the centre of the
hemisphere and the small increase in angle over
the width of the element is then dφ . The width of
the element is the length of the arc, of angle dφ ,
and radius r (i.e. AB in Figure 3.13). Therefore,
Width of element, AB r dφ
The radius of the element is CA = r sin φ . Hence

the surface area of the element is given by, Figure 3.13: Radiation from a small ele-
ment to a hemisphere for Q4(a).
Surface area width circumference r dφ 2πrsin φ
the circumference of circle 2π Radius
2πr2 sin φ dφ
i.e., Solid angle, dw, subtended at dA
r2
area subtended by 1 steradian of a solid angle = r2
and, dw 2π sin φ
dφ Hence the rate of total energy emission, E˙ from dA is
given by,
E˙ dA E ©i
π 2
φ dw dA E © dAiπ 2
φ 2π sin φ dφ
0 0
Substituting for iφ from equation (3.23), iφ iN cos φ , then
E˙ dA 2πdAiN E © cos φ sin φ dφ

π 2
14
π 2 © sin 2φ
2πdAiN E 0
dφ πi dA
N
2
Now from equation, E˙ εσ T 4
Thus, εσ T 4dA πiN dA
εσ T 4
i.e., iN
π (3.24)
Consider two small black surfaces of area dA1 and dA2
at temperatures T1 and T2, and distance x apart. The
angles of inclination of surfaces are as shown in Fig-
ure 3.14. This is a case where neither body receives all
the radiation from the other. Let the surface dA 2 sub-
tend a solid angle dw1 at the centre of the surface dA1.
Then we have,
Rate of energy emission from dA1 incident on dA2
iN1 cos φ1dw1dA1
σ T4 Figure 3.14: Radiation interchange
From equation (3.24), iN
= 1), therefore, π , for a black surface (ε between two small surfaces in large
surroundings.
σ T4 cos φ1dw1dA1
1
i.e., rate of energy incident on dA2 π
Also, from the definition of solid angle (solid angle, Ω,

in steradian, if A is the area of a part of the spherical
©
surface, and r is the radius of the sphere, then the solid
angle is given as, Ω A r2 )
dA2 cos φ2
dw1 x2
dA2 cos φ2
σ T4 cos φ1 dA1
1
x
Now the rateHence, rate of
of total energy energy from
emission incident
dA1on
is dA
σ dA π the energy incident on
2 1T4. The ratio of
1 geometric factor, F ,
the second body to the energy emitted by the first is called the 1 2
σ T4 cos φ1 dA2 cos φ2 dA1

1
i.e., F1
πx2σ dA1 1
or, F1 2 cos φ1 cos
(3.25)
φ2dA2
πx2
14
In the same way it can be shown that the geometric factor for radiation from surface 2 to surface
1 is given by,
or, F2 1 cos φ1 cos

(3.26)
φ2dA1
πx2
The net rate of energy interchange between the surfaces is given by,
σ cos φ1 cos φ2 dA1 dA2 4 4

Q1˙2 πx2 T1 T2
This can be written as,

Q˙ 1
2 F1 dA1σ T4 T 4
2 1 2
or, Q˙ 1 2 F2 1 dA1 σ T4 T4
For a larger area made up of small areas dA1 and dA2, average geometric factors can be defined
1 2
in the same way as above,
i.e.,
1 2
Q˙ 1 2 F1 2 A1σ T4 T4 (3.27)
and,
1 2
Q˙ 1 2 F2 1 A 1 σ T4 T 4 (3.28)
From equations (3.27) and (3.28) it can be seen
A1 F 1 2 A 2F2 1 (3.29)
This is known as the reciprocal relationship or theorem of reciprocity.

In practice calculating F can be a long and difficult process except for simple shapes; charts are
available for some of the more common configurations (see, for example, references 3.1 and
3.10). When a body, 1, is completely enclosed by other surfaces then
F1 sur f aces 1
If the surfaces have separate elements, 2, 3, etc. it follows that,
F1 sur f aces F1 1 F1 2 F1 3 etc. 1 (3.30)
The term F1 1 is necessary in cases where the body 1 can ’see’ parts of itself, e.g. a concave
body.
In Table 3.2 values of geometric factor, F1 2, are given for some common configurations; for
14
more complex geometries see references 3.1 and 3.10.
14
Table 3.2: Emissivities of some surfaces at various temperatures
Configuration Geometric factor, F1 2
Óu
(a) Body 1 complete enclosed 1 by body 2 1
(b) Parallel circular discs, radii
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x 1r 2r x1 1r 2r
{
r1 and r2 , distance x apart 1 2
2r 2
on a common-axis 2 2 1
(c) Small disc opposite a parallel 4r r
2
circular plate of radius R R
v Ó |
R L2
2
at a perpendicular distance L
(d) Small sphere opposite a circular 1 L
plate of radius R at a 1
perpendicular distance L 2 R2 L 2
(e) Small sphere at the centre
Ó
of the axis of a cylinder
L
of radius R and length R2 L 2
Example 3.3
Solution:
A hemispherical cavity of 0.6 m radius is covered by a plate with a hole of`0.2 m diameter
drilled in its centre. The inner surface of the plate is maintained at 250 C by a heater
embedded in the surface. The surfaces may be assumed to be black and the hemisphere may be
assumed to be well insulated. Calculate:
(a) the temperature of the surface of the
hemisphere; (b)the power input to the heater.
State any other assumption made.
Solution:
(a) the temperature of the surface:

Let the inner surface of the plate be 1, the hemisphere surface 2, and the hole projected surface
3, as shown. Then, since surface 1 is completely surrounded, we have
F1 2 F1 3 1
or, F1 2 1 since surface 1 cannot ‘see’ surface 3.
14
From equation, A1F1 2 A2F2 1
A1F1 2
F2 π 0.62 0.12 35
1
A2 2π 0.62 72
Similarly,
F3 2 1 and A2F2 3 A3F3 2
π 0.12 1 1
F2 3 2 72 Figure 3.15: Hemispherical cavity for
2π 0.6 Q4(b).
Then, Rate of energy emission from surface 2 A2F2

σ T4 A F σ T4
1 35 3 2 2 2 1 2
A2σ T4
A2σ T24 0.5

2
7 7
The rate of energy incident on surface 2 may be taken as the rate of energy emission from
surface 1, since the rate of energy entering the hole from outside will be negligible if the
surroundings are large and at normal temperature,
i.e., Rate of energy incident on surface 2 A1F1
σ T4 A σ T4
2 1 1 1
Then, A1σ T4 A2σ T4 0.5for the steady state

1 2
4 2 2
T1 π 0.6 0.1 435
i.e., T4 T1
2 2π 0.62 0.5 3
35 ©
1 4
`
i.e., T2 250 273 519.3 K 246.3 C

36
(b) Rate of heat input from heater:

A1F1 5.67 35
2 σ T4 T4 π 0.62 0.12 5234 1
1 2
1 3
129.6 W
14
3.11 Radiant interchange between grey bodies:
Radiosity, J˙ - is the total radiant energy leaving a body per unit area per unit time, and
Irradiation, G˙ - Is the total radiant energy incident on a body per unit area per unit time. Hence
Net heat transfer from body, Q˙ J˙ G˙ A (i)

where A is the area of the body surface. For a black body,
J˙ J˙T4;
where, J˙ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
For a grey body, the radiosity must include the fraction of energy which is reflected from the
surface,
i.e., J˙ εσ T4 ρG˙
where, the fractions of the radiation is emitted (represented by emissivity, ε) is absorbed, the
fraction reflected, and fraction transmitted are called the absorptivity, α, the reflectivity, ρ, and
the transmissivity, τ, respectively.
Also, for a grey body, equation (3.6), ε α 1 ρ, neglecting transmissivity.
J˙ εσ T4 1 ε G˙
J˙ εσ
or, G˙ T4 1 ε
Substituting for in equation (i),
G˙
Q˙
˙ ˙
˙ J˙ εσ T4
i.e., JGJ
A 1 ε
εA
or, Q˙ σ T4 J˙
(3.31)
1
For any two bodies 1 and 2, the geometric factor, F1 2 , is the fraction of radiation A1 J˙1 which is
intercepted by body 2,
i.e.,
Q˙ 1 2 A1 F1 2 J˙1 A2 F2 1 J˙2
Using equation (3.29), A1F1 2 A2F2 1
i.e., Q˙ 1 2 A1 F1 2 J˙1 J˙2 (3.32)
An electrical analogy can be used based on Ohm’s law. For example, from equation (3.31)
1 ε
Resistance due to emissivity of surface (3.33)
where
Q˙ is analogous to current and σ T4 J˙ is analogous to potential difference. Similarly,
from equation
14
1
Resistance due to geometry (3.34)
A1 F 1 2
Take the simple case of a body 1, completely enclosed by a body 2. Figure 3.16 shows the
electrical analogy.
Total resistance, RT
1 ε1 1 1 ε2
A ε A F A ε
1 1 1 1 2 22
Also in this case, F1 2 = 1, therefore
RT
1 1
A ε
1 1
A1
A
v |
1
ε
v |
1
A
1
ε
1 A1
A ε
1
1
˙ 2
Q RT
σ T4
1
T4
2
© © r© x
1 ε1
A 1 σ T4 T 4
A1 A2
1
1 ε2
2
1 (3.3
Figure 3.16: Electrical analogy for

radiation from body 1 enclosedby
body 2.
When the bodies are very close together then A1 A2,
© r©
˙ A1 σ T 4 T 4
1 2
i. Q
x
1 ε1 1 ε2
The latter expression for the heat transfer also applies to the case of two large flat parallel
surfaces where the size of the surfaces is large1compared with their distance apart, i.e. the
radiant energy escaping to the surroundings is negligible.
3.12 Gas radiation

In the problems considered in the previous sections on radiation the effect of the transmission
of radiation through the gaseous atmosphere has been neglected; some radiation will be
absorbed by the surrounding gases in such cases, but this is normally so small that it can be
neglected. Certain types of gases are transparent to thermal radiation; these include inert gases
(e.g. argon) and gases with symmetric diatomic molecules (e.g. oxygen and nitrogen). Hence
for radiation between surfaces in the normal atmospheric environment the effect of the
surrounding gas can be ignored. For gases with certain types of asymmetric molecular
structures (e.g. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, and water
vapour), radiation is absorbed from, and emitted to, surrounding surfaces. Due to the rotational
and vibrational motions within any gas molecule, the radiation absorbed is dependent on the
frequency of the radiation striking the molecule. Absorption and emission of radiation in gases
is therefore selective, occurring in only certain bands of wavelengths.
When considering radiation within a furnace, or any enclosure containing combustion gases, it
is necessary to allow for the absorption of radiation due to the presence of CO2 , H2O, and
perhaps
14
CO and S02 . A simplified procedure for the calculation of absorption and emission of radiation
in such gases was first suggested by Hottel; this is summarized in the chapter on radiation
written by Hottel in reference 3.10. Also included is the radiation from flames made luminous
by the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons.
3.13 The greenhouse effect

The so-called greenhouse effect on the earth is caused by the absorption of the sun’s
rays by gases, mainly carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is
essential for the survival of life on the planet `since without it the earth’s surface would
be rapidly cooled to a temperature of about -20 C. Gases are selective absorbers of radiation
and the major greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, absorb the long-
wavelength radiation from the surface of the earth much more readily than the low-
wavelength, high-temperature radiation from the sun to the earth’s surface. Hence there
is a net transfer of heat from the sun to the earth, maintaining the temperatures that
sustain life as we know it.
As long as there has been life on earth there has been a build-up of carbon dioxide in the at-
mosphere; one of our main constituents, carbon, oxidizes to carbon dioxide as we breathe, and
whenever wood, vegetable matter, or fossil fuel is burned. Methane is continuously released by
sheep and cattle, from any shallow wetland or marsh, and by certain insects such as termites.
The reason why there is now international concern is the realization that a dangerously high
level of greenhouse gases has built up over the last two centuries, and particularly over the last
50 years or so. This is mainly due to an acceleration in the world-wide combustion of fossil
fuel; it is estimated that 19 000 million tonnes per year of carbon dioxide are released into the
atmosphere from combustion of coal, oil, and gas. Methane concentration has also increased
markedly due to the rapid growth in intensive farming of livestock and of crops such as rice.
Other gases that are identified as causing the increase in the greenhouse effect are CFCs (Refer
to studies in Refrigeration and Air conditioning ), nitrous oxide from vehicle exhausts and
power station chimneys, and ozone from photochemical smog; the Montreal protocol should
solve the problem of CFCs by the end of this century, although CFCs are estimated to cause
only 15% of the present increase in the greenhouse effect.
The average temperature of the earth’s surface is known to be rising although the exact
increase due to the increased greenhouse effect is masked by natural cyclic fluctuations due to,
for example, changes to the sun itself. The main concern about the relatively small
temperature increases occurring in the earth due to the increased greenhouse effect is in the
increase in the melting of the polar ice-caps. This will cause increased sea-levels leading to
catastrophic flooding; more areas of the world would turn into desert, but other areas would in
turn become warmer and able to sustain crops more abundantly. The main solution to this
problem is to effect a reduction in the consumption of fossil fuels by first applying the
principles of the efficient use of existing energy, and secondly by vigorously introducing and
improving renewable energy-conversion methods using solar, wind, tidal, wave, and sea
devices.
Question ONE
A thermos flask consists of an inner cylindrical vessel of 60 mm outside diameter and an outer
cylindrical vessel of 65 mm inside diameter. Both surfaces are of polished silver, emissivity
0.02. Calculate the rate of heat loss per millimetre length
`
of the flask when it contains boiling
water and the temperature of the outside surface is 17 C. Neglect the thermal resistance of the
metal walls of the flask. (NB Polished surfaces reflect specularly and hence in this case the
surfaces act as large parallel planes.)
14
[Answers: 0.00133 W]
Question TWO
In a muffle furnace the floor, 4.5 m by 4.5 m, is constructed of refractory material (emissivity
= 0.7). Two rows of oxidized steel tubes are placed 3 m above and parallel to the floor, but for
the purpose of analysis these can be replaced by a 4.5 m by 4.5 m plane having an effective `
emissivity of 0.9. The average temperatures for the floor and tubes are 900 and 270 C
respectively.
Taking the geometric factor for radiation from floor to tubes as 0.32, calculate:
(a) the net rate of heat transfer to the tubes;
(b) the mean temperature of the refractory walls of the furnace, assuming that these are well
insulated.
`
[Answers: (a) 1009kW; (b) 687 C ]
Tutorial
1.A cylindrical electrode of radius, r, length, L, is immersed in a liquid which remains at
a constant temperature when the current density in the electrode is J. The heat transfer
coefficient, α, from the outside surface of the electrode may be assumed to be constant
over the entire surface.
Assuming steady-state conditions derive the differential equation
d ∆t 2α J2 s
∆t 0
dx rλ λ
where ∆t is the temperature difference between the electrode and the fluid at any
distance x from the end of the electrode, ,λ , the thermal conductivity of the electrode
material, and s the electrical resistivity of the electrode material.
©|
Hence show that for the case when the rate of heat loss through the lead and support at
v
each end is a fraction, y, of the total electrical input, then
©
J 2s mly cosh m x L 2
∆
©
t 1
m2λ sinh mL 2
where m = 2α rλ
©
1 2
2.A cylindrical storage

`
tank, 1 m diameter by 1.1 m long, has an outside surface
temperature of 60 C, and an emissivity of 0.9. Assuming that the tank is a grey body,
calculate:
(a) the rate of heat loss by radiation when the tank is in a large room, the walls of
`
which are at 15 C;
(b) also the reduction in the rate of heat loss by radiation if the tank is painted with
aluminium paint of emissivity 0.4.
[Answers:1474 W; 819 W]
` `
3.A copper pipe at 260 C is in a large room at 15 C. Calculate the rate of heat loss `
per unit
area of pipe
`
surface by radiation, taking the emissivity of copper as 0.61 at 260 C, and as
0.56 at 15 C. Assume that the absorptivity of a surface depends only on the temperature
of the source of radiation.
[Answer:2571.5 W/m2]
4.Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit surface area by radiation between
`
two` brick
walls a short distance apart, when the temperatures of the surfaces are 30 C and 15 C.
15
The emissivity of brick may be taken as 0.93, and the surfaces may be assumed to be
grey. [Answers:76.2 W/m2]
5.A gas` turbine can-type combustion chamber of 0.3 m diameter`
reaches a temperature of
500 C when undergoing a test in large surroundings at 15 C. The emissivity of the steel
surface is 0.79. Calculate the percentage reduction in the rate of radiant heat loss by
enclosing the combustion chamber with a cylindrical screen of 0.6 m diameter, the inside
and outside surfaces of which are painted with aluminium paint of emissivity 0.4.
[Answers: 61.3%]
`
6.A circular plate of`radius 0.1 m is at a temperature of 500 C in a large room,` the walls of
which are at 10 C. The air in the room is at a mean temperature of 15 C. A small,
spherical thermocouple junction is placed at a distance of 0.1 m from the centre of
the `plate. Show that the temperature recorded by the thermocouple is approximately
100 C.
The heat transfer coefficient from the thermocouple to the air is 25.6 W/m2K, and the
plate surface may be assumed to be black for thermal radiation. Neglect conduction
through the thermocouple leads. The geometric factor is given in Table ??.
7.An electric heater 25 mm diameter and 0.3 m long is used to heat a room. Calculate the
`
electrical input to the heater when the bulk of the air in the room is at 20 C, the walls are
` `
at 15 C, and the surface of the heater is at 540 C. For convective heat transfer from the
heater, assume that
Nu 0.4 Gr 1
©4
where all properties are at mean film temperature and β = 1/T, where T K is the bulk
temperature of the air.
[Take the emissivity of the heater surface as 0.55 and assume that the surroundings are
black.]
[Answer:481 W]
8.(a)Calculate the radiation
`
heat transfer coefficient`for the flat plate with a surface tem-
perature of 550 C and air at temperature 15 C and a mean velocity of 6 m/s blown
across it, assuming that the surroundings are large and are at the air temperature, and
(b)compare this with the heat transfer coefficient for convection. Take the emissivity of
the plate surface as 0.6.
©
[Answer(a) 28.75 W/m2K; (b) αT α = 1.05]
9.(a)Calculate the radiation heat transfer coefficient
`
for the vertical wall
`
of wall 0.6 m
high by 3 m wide and maintained at 79 C in an` atmosphere at 15 C., assuming that
the wall radiates into black surroundings at 15 C, and
(b)the emissivity of the wall surface is 0.93. Compare this value with the heat transfer
©
coefficient for convection.
[Answers:(a) 6.98 W /m2K; (b) αr α 1.52 ]
10.A hot-water heater 150 mm wide by 1.2 m long by 1 m high is at a surface
` ` `
temperature of 50 C in surroundings at 20 C. The walls of the room are at 13 C. The
surface area of the heater is 7 m2 and the heat transfer coefficient for convection is
given by
α 1.31 ∆t
©
1 3
where α is in W /m2 K, and ∆ t in K.

Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the heater. Take the emissivity of the heater as 0.95
15
and assume that it is completely surrounded by black surroundings.
[Answers:1.545 kW]
LABORATORY EXERCISE(S)
1. Determination of combined convection and radiation heat transfer from a horizontal
cylinder in natural and forced convection.
2. To find out the Stefan Boltzmann
constant. 3.Determination of Emissivity of a
Surface.
References
edn John Wiley;
Flu- ids 4th edn Basil Blackwell;
3.6 ECKERT ER and DRAKE RM 1971 Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer Taylor and Francis;
3.6 KERN D Q 1950 Process Heat Transfer McGraw-Hill;
3.9 EASTOP TD and WATSON w E 1992 Mechanical Services for Buildings Longman. 3.10
EASTOP T. D. and McCONKEY A. 1993 Applied Thermodynamics For Engineering
Technol- ogists, 5th edn. Pearson.
15

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TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

Prepared by: Njeru Gatumu

At the end of this course the student will be able to:

1.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction

1.2.1 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

i.e., Rate of heat flow,Q˙ š .A

Figure 1.1: Heat

1.2.2 Thermal Conductivity of Materials

; unit of k : W = W/mK or W/m C

1.Material structure, 3. Density of the material,

Alloys: = k 12 to 120 W/m C `Heat

Liquids: k 0.2 to 0.5 W/m C `

Gases and vapours: k 0.006 to 0.05 W/m C `

where, k0 Thermal conductivity at 0 C, `and

1.2.3 Thermal Resistance (Rth)

Potential difference (dV)

By analogy, the heat flow equation (Fourier’s equation) may be written

Conduction through a plane wall

Let, L = Thickness of the plane wall,

∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2 k α ∂τ

Thermal resistance (conduction) of the wall, RT cond. L

Mass of the wall, m ρA L (ii)

Eliminating L from eqn.(i) and eqn.(ii), we get

m ρA RT cond. kA ρ.k)A2. RT cond. (1.12)

Heat conduction through a composite wall

Figure 1.4: Steady state conduction through a composite wall.

Referring Figure 1.10. The contact resistances are given by

and, xA 0.1146 m or 114.6 mm.

also, Thickness of insulation xB 320 114.6 205.4 mm.

(b) Heat loss per unit area, q:

Common brick, kA = 0.7 W/m C`

From eqn.(1.13) i.e., Q˙ t1 t4

0.1 0.04 0.1 0.04 xC

or, 0.1428 0.0833 0.2 0.1428 0.0833 15.385x

and, 0.2261 0.2 0.2261 15.385x

thus, x 0.0588 m or 58.8 mm

Therefore, the thickness of rock wool insulation should be 58.8 mm.

Thermal conductivities: kA = 1.52 W/m` C ; kB = kD = 0.138 W/m` C ; kC = 45 W/m` C

(a) The value of xB:

Newton’s law of cooling

Hence adding the corresponding sides of the three equations

q˙α q˙λx αq˙

By analogy with equation (1.17) this can be written as,

i.e., Temperature of outside surface of tank 89.6 C `

Comparing this equation with equation (1.2), Q˙ kA/x t1 t2 , we

where Q˙ is analogous to I, and t1 t2 is analogous to V.

The total resistance to heat flow is then,

A 0.5 0.5 2 0.5 1 4 2.5 m2

Figure 1.16: Heat leaks through re-

i.e., t4 220 1344 0.0857 104 C `

Temperature at outside surface of wall 104.1 C`

(a) Thermal conductivity, k (= kB):

1 0.25 0.1 0.15 1

0.1 2.817 3 2.817

1.2.6 Heat flow through a cylinder and a sphere

Now from equation (1.2),

i.e., Arithmetic mean radius r2 r1

Heat conduction through a composite cylinder

Figure 1.20: Cross-section of a

The rate of heat transfer is given by,

If there are ‘n’ concentric cylinders, then

(a) the rate of heat loss;