Block 2: Thermal physics

9 The kinetic model of matter

9.1 States of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Volume Occupies fixed volume Occupies fixed volume Expand to fill container
Shape Fixed shape Takes shape of container Takes shape of container
Arrangement of Tightly packed together Less tightly packed Loosely packed together
particles together
Contact with Close contact with one Close contact with one No contact unless collision
other particles another another
Movement of Vibrates to and fro, Move around one another Moves freely about,
particles about fixed position from place to place bounces off one another
and walls of container
Forces between Strong intermolecular Weaker intermolecular No intermolecular forces
particles forces between particles forces between particles between particles
*Fluid – Liquids and gas

9.2 Kinetic model of matter

o Objects are made up of particles
 Brownian motion
o Random motion of particles suspended in a fluid resulting from their collision with the
fast-moving molecules in the fluid.
9.3 Changing states
Evaporation/
Melting Boiling
Solids Liquids Gases
Freezing Condensation

 Difference between evaporation and boiling

 Evaporation  Boiling
o Happens below B.P. o Happens at B.P.
o Only more energetic particles at o All of the liquid turns into gas
surface of liquid turns into gas

Surface area Amount of particles exposed to air

Factors Temperature of liquid Amount of energy for particles to escape
affecting Humidity Amount of water vapour air can hold
evaporation Wind speed Amount of particles being blown away so they
can’t fall back into the liquid
9.4 Boyle’s law
 “The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, provided
its temperature remains constant”
 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 𝑝𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Therefore,
 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
1 1
 𝑝 ∝𝑉 or 𝑉 ∝𝑝

𝑝
Pressure

Volume
1
𝑉
10 Thermal properties of matter
10.1 Temperature and internal energy
 Internal energy  Temperature
o The total energy of all its o The average kinetic energy of
particles individual particles
10.2 Thermometers
 A measuring instrument used to determine the temperature of an object

10.2.1 Designing a thermometer

 You need:
o Two fixed points
o Substance with thermometric property
o Scale
 Factors:
o Sensitivity
 How much the thermometer expands per °C
o Responsiveness
 How quickly the thermometer expands per °C
o Linearity
 How consistent the thermometer expands per °C
o Range
 The difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures that the
thermometer can read
10.2.2 Types of thermometers

 Mercury-in-glass (and alcohol-in-glass) thermometers

o Temperature read by eye
 Electronic thermometer (using thermistor)
o Resistors which changes by a large amounts over a narrow temperature range
o Robust and can be built into electrical circuits
o Limitations
 Non-linear  Limited range
 Thermocouple
o Voltage reading shows temperature output
o Greater the voltage, the greater the temperature difference
o Thermocouple needs to be calibrated first
o Can be used to measure high temperatures (up to just below M.P. of metal used)
o Has high responsiveness as device is small and can measure rapidly varying
temperatures
 Metal X

Metal Y V
Temperature
being Junctions Reference
measured temperature Voltmeter

10.3 Thermal expansion

 Solids
o Expands most slowly
 Liquids
o Expands faster than solid
 Gases
o Expands faster still

 Uses
o Join metal plates with rivets
o Fitting metal lid caps on a
glass jar or bottle
o Bimetallic strip
 Consequences
o Expansion of bridges/railway lines
o Glass container cracking due to
heat

10.4 Specific heat capacity

 The energy required per kilogram and per degree Celsius to raise the temperature of
a substance
 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐸
 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 or 𝑐 = 𝑚∆𝑇
 The SI unit for S.H.C. is 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃
10.5 Thermal capacity
 Metals heats up easily  Non-metals heats up easily
o Low thermal capacity o High thermal capacity
Unlike S.H.C., T.C. doesn’t count the mass of the substance

 The energy required per degree Celsius to raise the temperature of a substance
 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐸
 𝐸 = 𝑐∆𝑇 or 𝑐 = ∆𝑇
 The SI unit for T.C. is 𝐽/℃
10.6 Latent heat capacity
 The energy required per kilogram to change a substance’s state of matter without
changing temperature
 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝐸
 𝐸 = 𝑚𝐿 or 𝐿=
𝑚
 The SI unit for S.L.H. is 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
 Specific latent heat of fusion
o S.L.H. to change substance from solid to liquid
o = 𝐿𝑓
 Specific latent heat of vaporisation
o S.L.H. to change substance from liquid to gas
o = 𝐿𝑣
11 Thermal (heat) energy transfers
11.1 Types of heat transfers
 Conduction
o Transfer of energy from one particle to another through direct contact
 Energy transfers from high energy particles to low energy particles as they
bump against one another
 Convection
o Transfer of energy through the flow of current in a fluid
 A current is formed when a warmer fluid rises forcing the cooler fluid to sink
 Radiation
o Transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves
 Unlike other types of heat transfers, it doesn’t require a medium to transfer
energy
11.2 Conductors and insulators
 Conductors
o Allows transfer of energy throughout the substance very well
o Metals are good conductors as they have free electrons to transfer energy
 Insulators
o Doesn’t allow transfer of energy throughout the substance easily
11.3 Absorbers, emitters, and reflectors
Absorbers Emitters Reflectors
Matte black Good Good Bad
Shiny white Bad Bad Good