Tutor Midterm - Learning Support

4TH NOVEMBER 2023
LEARNING SUPPORT
GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
MIDTERM
TUTOR CLASS
Phuc Le Hoang Nguyen

TABLE
of contents
01. Introduction to Chemistry
02. Matter & Measurements
03. Atoms
04. Electronic Structure of Atoms
05. Periodic Properties of Elements

I. Introduction to Chemistry
1 Recommended
Textbook 3 How to Study General
Chemistry I
2 Our Folder
4 General Knowledge
1. Recommended
Textbook
Chemistry -The Central Science, 13th
Edition:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1XlszQ
lN2jWFX8xNfvZSCX-oAhANipKQK
Read selectively only!

2. Our Folder Link to Folder:
All:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16I8Yf30q
pwTJERgoktSdPhsQen4_GVZs?usp=drive_link
Genchem 1:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16
y1W-bl6-NlR-dfps_h88sLyOcacz-tM
Read selectively only! We have:
+ Small Advice
+ Lectures - Gen 13
+ Tutorials - Gen 13
+ Textbooks
+ Tutorials - Gen 13 (updated later)
+ Tutorials - Gen 14 (updated later)
+ Genchem Terms
3. How to Study Chemistry?
Read carefully the slides
Do all the exercises
Read the textbooks selectively
Use notes and illustrations
Rewrite the things needing memorizing
Redo exercises before exams
Process of Photosynthesis 4. General
Knowledge
Chemistry is EVERYWHERE
Water boils at 0°C (273.15K) & boils at
100°C (373.15K)
Photosynthesis:
light (hv)
mCO 2 + nH2O enzyme
------> mO2 + Cm(H2O)n (sugar)
Respiratory:
enzyme
mO2+ Cm(H2O)n(sugar) ------> mCO2+ nH2O
Everything tends to: stabilize (minimize E)
Source: Wikipedia but to be more chaotic (maximize S)
Burning (reaction with O )
Catalysts speed up reactions
II. Matter & Measurements
1 Matter, Weight & Mass
4 SI Units
2 Physical States of Matter 5 Uncertainty in

Measurement
3 Energy
6 Significant Figures
1. Matter, Weight and Mass
Matter Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space (V and m)
Mass Measure of the quantity of matter in a sample of any material (same everywhere, universally)
Weight The force that is exerted on its mass by gravity (depends on P, varies universally)
P = mg
1. Mass is univerally the same, as long as you have a sample of matter
--> replace “mass” with “weight”
=> Misconception: 2. Weight in space is not “zero”, it’s so small, “almost zero” because gravitational force is:
Their is no “mass” in
space r super large <-> smaller weight
QUESTION:
IS PHOTON MATTER?
Yes
No Why? It has volume but no mass.

It is a particle of light without
mass.
#Not all particles have mass!
Matter: protons, electrons, neutron
Antimatter: antiproton, posistron

(antielectron), antineutron
Non-matter: photon
2. Physical States of Matters
State Transformation
Density
Characteristics Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
Ions, protons,
Composition Atoms/Molecules Atoms/Molecules Atoms/Molecules
electrons, neutrons
Fly chaotically in Fly chaotically in
Position of Particles Stuck in Lattice Slide on each other
all direction all direction
Movement of Particles Almost stationary Moderately fast Fast Very Fast
Interaction of Particles Strong Moderate Weak Extremely weak

Close but Extremely far and
Distance beteen Particles Close and constant Far and Inconstant
Inconstant Inconstant
Enthalpy of System Low Moderate High
Extremely High
Energy of System Low Moderate High Extremely High
Density High Moderate Low Extremely Low

Characteristics Solid Liquid Gas Plasma
Shape Hold shape Shape of Container Shape of Container Shape of Container
Volume Fixed Fixed Unfixed Unfixed
Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible Compressible
States are more the gas/liquid/solid thing, describing the qualitative behavior of some matter.
States This explains the sample at a given T and P.
H2O: solid (ice), liquid, gas (steam)
≠ CO2: solid (ice), liquid, gas (steam)
Phases describe a collection of matter (often a region) as opposed to that collection's state.
Phase This applies for a region uniform in chemical and physical.
H2O: 20 - 74,963 structures of solid (ice), liquid, gas (steam)
CO2: solid (dry ice), liquid (liquid 1), gas (carbonic gas), supercritical (liquid 2)
Phase Diagram of CO2 Phase Diagram of H2O
QUESTION:
WHERE DO YOU
NORMALLY FIND
PLASMA?
Volcanoes Electrical discharges in the sky above
the erupting volcano, not lava
In our daily life Too high energy, we don’t often see it
because our habitating environment
Lightning has a pretty low level of energy, or
“stable environment”.
Aurorae
Stars, like the Sun Interstella Gas Clouds
Solarwinds Tails of Comets

#NOTE: There is always an equilibrium between state of matters
FACT CHECK: IN ANY SAMPLE, THERE’S ALWAYS

ALL FOUR STATES, BUT OUR EYES/OBSERVERS CAN
ONLY SEE/DETECT THE MAIN ONES BECAUSE THE
QUANTITY OF THE MINORITY IS EXTREMELY SMALL.
QUESTION: IF YOU
OPEN 3 BOTTLES
OF PH3, PBU3 & PPh 3,
WHICH ODOR
WOULD YOU SMELL
FIRST?
QUESTION:
WHAT FACTOR(S)
CAN AFFECT THE
STATE OF A SAMPLE?
Changes the movement of
Temperature
particles
Pressure Changes the distance and

interaction between particles
Composition of the sample (NEXT SLIDE)
All of them
Adding Salt (NaCl) to ice can cause
freezing-temperature depression
3
1 2 The interaction of NaCl(aq)
There’s always an + -
or Na and Cl , with H2O(l) is
NaCl can dissolve in H2O(l)
equilibrium between solid favorable => decrease
to form a solution of water
and liquid in the surface of freezing temperature of
and salt
ice: H2O (s) H2O (l) the solution => it melts
Basic Concepts
Pure Substance (in short: Substance): Matter that has distinct composition and
properties that does not vary from sample to sample (or Lab to lab)
Mixture: combination of > 2 substances, in which each substance retains its chemical
identity with NO chemical reaction occurs
Element: chemical comprising of only 1 type of atom
Compound: chemical comprising of > 2 types of atom
Homogenous: uniform structure or composition
throughout (D = const everywhere in the sample)
--> salt water (unsaturated or saturated with no crystal),
ethanol + water, pure water...
Heterogenous: non-uniform structure or

composition throughout (D ≠ const everywhere in
the sample)
--> air, salt + water (saturated with salt crystals), sand +
water, oil + water, ice + water, water from wells,
sparkling water, milk, coffee,...
HOW TO CREATE A HOMOGENOUS MIXTURE?
“Like Dissolve like”

POLAR SOLUTE DISSOLVE IN POLAR SOLVENT
NON-POLAR SOLUTE DISSOLVE IN NON-

POLAR SOLVENT
Homogenous:
Homogenous Mixture: salt water, ethanol + water
Pure Substance:
- Element: He, Ar, O2, O3, N2, H2,...
- Compound: H2O, CO2 , C6H6,...
QUESTION:
IS AIR A HOMOGENOUS
OR HETEROGENOUS
MIXTURE?
Homogenous
Heterogenous
There are lots of

things in air that
arn’t gas
QUESTION:
HOW CAN A
MECHANICIAN
WASHES OF DIRT
AFTER WORK?
water These dirts are often
non-polar => choose
salt water a non-polar solvent
to wash. Another
option is water +
gasoline soap due to the
micell structure of
organic oil salts of fatty acids
3. Energy
Definition: Types of Energy:
the capacity to do work or transfer heat Many forms of energy: chemical energy, light energy, electrical
energy and heat energy
Transformation Classification:
between Energy & Kinetic Energy (depending on the movement)
Potential Energy (depending on the storation)
Mass: E = mc 2 ΣE = E kinetic + E potential
c: speed of light (299 792 458 m/s) From High School:
E kinetic = mgh
E potential = _mv
1 2
2
3. Energy
Laws of Thermodynamics
th If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they
0 are also in equilibrium with each other.
st Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be converted from one form
1 to another.
nd Heat is transferred from one body to another body only if the two bodies are at
2 different temperatures.
rd The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature
3 approaches absolute zero.
th The dissipative component of evolution is in a direction of steepest entropy
4 ascent
3. Energy
Thermodynamics in Reactions
st Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be converted from one form
1 to another => If your process has the change in energy: ΔE => the process either
release or absorb E from the environment
P/S: lower
energy level
<=> more stable
Enthalpy: ΔH < 0 ΔH > 0

3. Energy
CHANGES
Physical Chemical
no change in chemical composition One or more substances are used up

only transformation between states One or more new substances are
of matter formed
IN COMMON
Energy is absorbed or released
QUESTION:
IS THE FOLLOWING
REACTION
EXOTHERMIC OR
ENDOTHERMIC?
>0
Exothermic
Endothermic
4. SI Units
7 base units
4. SI Units
Common Prefixes
4. SI Units
Others
Derived SI Units: obtained by
multiplication or division
of one or more of the base
units
4. SI Units
Transformation
between
Temperature
Units
5. Uncertainty in Measurement
Types of Numbers
Exact numbers: those whose values are know exactly
--> a dozen of eggs = 12 eggs; number of B1 ssstudents..
Inexact number: those whose values have some incertainty
#Note: All numbers from experiment are inexact due to:

+ Equipment errors
+ Human errors
6. Significant Figures (SF)
Definition: All digits of a measured quantity, including
the uncertain ones => More SFs <=> More reliable
Determination: Rounding Rules

x
Multiplication by 10 (x 10 ) (not SFs)
Non-zeros (SFs) < 5 => Round down (drop this
Zeros: a and b are non-zeros digit and leave the remaining
- Before non-zeros: 0a or 0.0a (not SFs) number unchanged)
- Between non-zeros: a0b (SFs) > 5 => Round up (drop this digit
- After non-zeros: and add 1 to the preceding digit)
+ After Decimal point a.0 or a0.0 (SFs) =5 => rounded off to the nearest
+ a0 (Depending on how you write): even digits.
3
Ex: 3000 (4SFs) = 3 x 10 (1 SFs)
6. Significant Figures (SF)
Calculation Rules for SFs:
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
The result has the same The result contains the same
number of decimal places number of significant figures
as the measurement with as the measurement with the
the fewest decimal places fewest significant figures
Combi nation
Following the normal rules:

In braskets () ---> x and / ---> + and -
QUESTION:
CALCULATE &
REPORT ACCORDING
THE RULES OF SF!
17.0205 x 0.025 = 0.4255125 ≈ 0.42
(6 SFs) (2 SFs) ---> (2 SFs)
12.0075 +10.025 = 22.0325 ≈ 22.032

(4 Ds) (3 Ds) ---> (3 Ds) D: decimal
(do this first)
-1.2 1.5 -1.2 1.5
12.0075 + 9.08 x 10 /(10.025 x 10 ) = 12.0075 + (9.008/10.025) x (10 /10 )
(4 Ds) (3 SFs) (ignore this) (5 SFs) (ignore this)
-1.2 + 1.5
= 12.0075 + 0.89855361... x 10 (both 1 D)
(divide) (round off to 3 SFs)
0.3
≈ 12.0075 + 0.898 x 10
(4 Ds) (3 Ds) (ignore this)
(divide)
= 13.7992455... ≈ 13.799
(round off to 3 Ds)
III. Atoms
1 Origin of Atoms
2 Atomic Structure
III. Atoms
1. Origin of Atoms
Definition: building block of matter
Origin:
Eastern Philosophy Any mtter is made of Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, Earth
Matter cannot be divided indefinitely. It should be composed of very small

Greek Philosophy particles that cannot be divided (small particles = building blocks = Atoms)
1. Law of constant composition: In a given compound, the relative numbers and
=> 2 Laws: kinds of atoms are constant. (water is H2O and never something else...)
2. Law of multiple proportions: If two elements A and B combine to form more

than one compound, the masses of B that can combine ith a given mass of A are in
the ratio of small whole numbers. Ex: the case of NOx: N2O, NO, NO2 ,...
AVOGADRO
In equal volumes of gases, the number
of particles are the same (If pressure
and temperature are the same)
23
NA ≈ 6.022 x 10
General Concepts
1 mol = N A
atoms or molecules with the mass (in grams) = A (atomic mass
in amu) or M (molecular mass in amu) (see next slides)
1. Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. Element : all atoms of a given element are identical (except isotopes... see further) atoms
of different elements are different.
3. Atoms are unchanged in chemical reactions (The valence electrons change, not nucleus)
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine
5. A given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms
III. Atoms
2. Atomic Structure
Size of Atoms: 31 ~ 500pm
-10
Also use: 1Å = 10 m (Amstrong)
III. Atoms
2. Atomic Structure
Characteristics Protons (p) Neutrons (n) Electrons (e)
Surrounding the
Position In the nucleus In the nucleus nucleus, creating
electron shells
-19
Charge (e) +1 0 -1 1 e = 1.602 x 10 C
Volume Bigger Bigger Extremely small -27
-27 -27
1 amu = 1.6605 x 10 kg
-31
Mass (kg) 1.6726 x 10 kg ≈ 1 amu 1.6749 x 10 kg ≈ 1 amu 9.1094 x 10 kg amu: atomic mass unit
= ___
1 m
Are held together by the strong atomic force. Point-like, dimentionless, 0 12
12
C
6
Other features Incase the nucleus is too big, the weak atomic dimention and are held in atoms
force allow radioactivity to occur by the electronic attractive force
with the nucleus
Atom = electron shell (e) + nucleus (core, center) (p + n)

III. Atoms
2. Atomic Structure
General Concepts Symbol in the Periodic Table
Atom = electron shell (e)(-) and nucleus (p, n)(+)

Nuclei are small and heavy
A(amu) = np+ nn (n means number)
An atom in ground state has neutral charge (q = np+ nn= (amu)
0) <=> np= ne
Electrons characterize the chemical properties
of an atom
Element = all atoms has the same Z = np(atomic np=
number) but nncan vary generating isotopes
III. Atoms
2. Atomic Structure
Isotopes Famous
Isotopes are distinct nuclear species of the same
chemical element.
Isotopes
Isotopes have the same atomic number (number
of protons, p), but different number of neutrons p H: Hydrogen, Deuteri, Tetri ( 11H,21H,31H)
n
(different np+ nn) C:126C, 136C,146C

Isotopes of a given element have almost the N:147N,157N,167N
same chemical properties they have different O:168O, 178O,188O
atomic masses and physical properties P: 3115P,32
15 15P
P, 33
Only m C is 12 (an integer), m of other elements

12
6
Cl: 17Cl,17Cl => mass of element
35 37
aren’t necessarily integers = average mass of all isotopes

III. Atoms
2. Atomic Structure
4 types of
radioactivity
QUESTION:
WHICH OF THE
FOLLOWING ARE
ISOTOPES?
These are other names of

QUESTION:
WHICH OF THE
FOLLOWING ARE
ISOTOPES?
QUESTION:
WHAT MAKES THE
VOLUME OF ATOM?
All subatomic particles, including electrons are
extremely small in size.
If the size of an atom is a stadium, the nucleus only
correspond to a blueberry. The nucleus is extremely small
and dense.
a & b are wrong
electrons are small but they move
super quickly, generating electron
clouds around the nucleus
the nucleus vibrates minimally around a centric
point
Please mind the second
QUESTION: law of atoms:
CHEMICAL Law of multiple proportions: If two elements A and B
combine to form more than one compound, the masses
of B that can combine ith a given mass of A are in the
COMPOSITION ratio of small whole numbers (integers). Ex: the case of

NOx: N2O, NO, NO2 ,...
a. 1:1 and 1:1.02 are definitely different

b. Fe3O4are not FeO and Fe2O3 (1:1) because
their lattice structures are different.
However, Fe3O4 has both chemical
charaters of the other two oxides.
c. 1.02 isn’t an integer and there are only two types of oxides
of Fe (FeO and Fe2O3) => there must be some Fe O in this
sample.
IV. Electronic Structures of Atoms
1 Concepts of Orbit &
Orbitals 4 Electron Configuration
2 Energy
5 Periodic
Characteristics
3 Quantum Numbers &

Atomic Orbitals (AO)
1. Concept of Orbit & Orbitals
Electronic Stucture of Atoms
Definition: Arrangement of electrons in space around the nucleus
Different electrons binds to the nucleus in different manners
General Concepts Different electrons have different potential and kinetic energy
Each energy level correspond to a certain distance to the nucleus
Only valence electrons involves in chemical reactions
Notes: Valence electrons determine the chemical

characteristics of an element, not inner electrons or nuclei
Observation: Emission spectrum of atoms
Periodic chemical properties of elements
2. Energy
TRANSITION OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN
ENERGY LEVELS
Electrons can absorb energy to get to the excited state,
and release energy to get to lower levels of energy.
Electrons can absorb photon (denoted as hv) to get to
the excited state, and release photon (denoted as hv’)to
get to lower levels of energy.
Theoretically:
ΔE absorb = ΔErelease = ____
hc = ΔE
λ
with E: Energy
h: Planck’s Constant
c: speed of light (~3x10 m/s)
λ: wavelength of photon
=> λ absorb= λ release
TRANSITION OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN
ENERGY LEVELS
Practically:
ΔE absorb> ΔE release (lost to surrounding atoms)
hc <=> λabsorb< λ release
hc > ___________
=> ___________
λ absorb λ release
=> it follows another pattern:
Absorb light of a color <=>

release the opposite color
(we see this released color)
=> continuous spectrum or
discontinuous spectrum???
QUESTION:
ELEMENTS HAVE CONTINUOUS OR
DISCONTINUOUS SPECTRUM?
Observation: White light: photons of all λ
An object have distinct colors, not all colors
=> only photons of some λ is released & only some λ is absorbed
{electrons only have certain energy level, not all energy levels <=> only certain distances
=> from the nucleus, not all distances
discontinuous emmision spectrum
=> elements with similar

electron configuration have
similar chemical
characteristics
2. Energy
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
very reactive but
inert gases less than IA Group
He, Ar, Ne, Kr, Xe, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba,
Rn, Uuo Ra
VIIIA Group IIA Group
IA Group
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

are soft, very active Please be patient,
(violently reaction the next slides will
with water or O2) have lots of words
and math :)))
>>
2. Energy
Timeline
Bohr’s Model Classical Physics => false in quantum world => Bohr relied on other assumptions
Only depends on n (principle quantum number) (see next slides)
4. An electron in an
2. Only orbits of allowed energy state
certain radii, won’t radiate energy
corresponding to and therefore won’t
certain definite spiral into the nucleus
energies, are (as predicted by
permitted classical physics)
Classical
Certain Radii,
Physics is False Absorbance and
Circular Orbits Certain Definite “Allowed State”
in the Quantum Emision
Energies
1. the electron moves 3. An electron in a World 5. Energy is emitted or
around the proton in permitted orbit has a absorbed by the
circular orbits specific energy and is electron only as the
in an "allowed“ energy electron changes from
state one allowed energy
state to another
2. Energy
< 0: since these Only applies for Hydrogen-like systems
are bound states:
Energy of an “allowed energy state” - Bohr
positive energy
must be given to extract
the
electron
You can also calculate ΔE
of a transition by using =>
ΔE = E 1- E2= _____ and then Wavelengths of the spectral lines of H
prove the following
formulae of 1/λ. Just
note that:
ΔE > 0 <=> absorbance
ΔE < 0 <=> emission
2. Energy
Mathematically Proving:
2. Energy
Hydrogen-like systems: 1
electron + 1 nucleus
+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+
H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N,...
n: principle quantum number
∞
n --> <=> E --> 0 (atom lost its
+
electron) (H )
QUESTION: IN THE IDEAL CONDITIONS
(WITHOUT ENERGY LOSS), IF A COMPOUND
X ABSORBS THE PHOTON λ1 , IT WILL EMIT
PHOTONS WITH λ2WHERE:
2. Energy
Another Approach
2. Energy
Quantum Mechanics
1. A wave cannot be precisely localized ...
2. As electrons behave like waves they cannot be
precisely localized
3. More precisely we cannot know simultaneously their
speed and their position ( uncertainty principle)
4. There are described by wave functions which give
their probability of presence in some portion of
space and their energy
3. Quantum Numbers & Atomic Orbitals (AO)
General Concepts
Orbital: A region of space where the probability (P) of finding an electron: 100% > P > 90%. Each
orbital can only have 0, 1 or 2 electrons
Electrons have both particle and wave function => we can describe them by the Schrödinger’s
Equation:
You don’t have to study this!
3 first quantum numbers are solutions of the Schrödinger’s Equation, the last one is derived.
Each orbital is characterized by a set of 3 quantum numbers: n, l, m l
Each electron is characterized by a set of 3 quantum numbers: n, l, ml , ms
Characteristics n l ml ms
Possible Values 1, 2, 3, 4, ... 0, 1, 2, ..., (n - 1) -l,... , 0,... , +l 1
+ ______
2
Mathematic Expression ∈ N* ∈ N* ∩ [0;(n-1)] ∈ N* ∩ [-l;+l)] { 1
∈ + _____
2 }
Principal quantum Azimuthal/Angular Magnetic quantum Spin quantum
Names
number Momentum quantum number number
number
natural plus or minus one
Values in Words positive integers integers from -l to
numbers/positive over two
+l
integers and zero
As n increase: From values of l, we have First or Second electron in
Bigger Orbital different types of orbitals the orbital. Electrons
The e spends more with different shapes: Describes the actually doesn’t spin, its
Meanings/Characteristics times further from the l = 0 (s) (sharp) orientation of the values are due to Pauli
nucleus <=> higher l = 1 (p) (principle) orbital in space Exclusion Principle: there
energy level l = 2 (d) (diffuse) aren’t two electrons with
less bound to the l = 3 (f) (fundamental) the same quantum state
nucleus For the same n, l increase <-> higher energy level
Illustrations of values ml of p orbitals: Illustrations of d orbitals:
QUESTION: FOR THE SAME n , WHY DOES
HIGHER l MEANS HIGHER ENERGY LEVEL?
We have to look in terms of the whole system:
Lower l <=> more symetric and simple shape
of orbitals, and these orbitals (with
electrons inside) repels each other <=> in a
whole system, symetry means cancel out
forces
Lower l <=> less orbital with the same type
(considersing the possible values of m l) <=>
less repelling forces
- l = 0 <=> only 1 AO (only 1 possible value of m l)
- l = 1 <=> 3 AOs (3 possible values of ml )
- l = 2 <=> 5 AOs (5 possible values of m l)
- l = 3 <=> 7 AOs (7 possible values of m l)
This can also explains an exception: 3d has
higher energy level than 4s. Anoter aspect
can be approached by penetration.
QUESTION: FOR THE SAME n , WHY DOES
HIGHER l MEANS HIGHER ENERGY LEVEL?
PENETRATION: WHEN ELECTRONS OF OUTER
SHELLS GETS CLOSER TO THE NUCLEUS
(PENETRATE INTO LOWER SHELLS).
The ability of penetration: s > p > d > f
Better penetration <=> lower energy level
Summary:
All AOs with the same n = shell AOs same n and l <=> same energy level
All AOs with the same n and l = subshell
In shell number n there are n subshells
The total number of orbitals in a shell is n2
Shape of Orbitals:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Arkansas_Little_Rock/Che
m_1402%3A_General_Chemistry_1_(Belford)/Text/6%3A_The_Structure_of_Ato
ms/6.6%3A_The_Shapes_of_Atomic_Orbitals
Nodal plane: yz xz xy
}
SHAPES & NODAL PLANES, NODES:
spherical (l = 0)
NO NODAL PLANE, NO NODE
} dumbell (l = 1)
1 NODAL PLANE, 1 NODE
xz and yz xy and yz
} double dumbell/others (l = 2) 2 nodal cones
}
2 NODAL PLANES, 1 NODE
triple dumbell/others
YOU DON’T HAVE TO STUDY THIS

xz and xy x = y and x = -y
Basic concepts
An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 elctrons
When all AOs of a shell is filled (all are paired) => full shell
4. Electron Configuration
DEFINITION:
The way in which the electrons are distributed among the various orbitals of an
atom. The most stable electron configuration of an atom is the ground state = the
lowest possible energy state. Orbitals are “filled“ in order of increasing energy,
with no more than two electrons per orbital.
1. Electrons must be filled in orbitals subshells of lowest energy level (1s)
ORDERS: to higher energy levels. (Aufbau principle)

2. For ions: n+ means n electrons less >< m- means m more electrons
3. In a subshell, electrons must be filled to maximum spins (ms) (Hund’s Rule) (Write all possible electrons
with spins +1/2 before moving on to those of -1/2). Please mind the exception of Cu and Cr.
4. When drawing: each orbital is a square: and then write electrons in there. Spin +1/2 is an upward
arrow: and spins -1/2 is a downward arrow: .
not possible 5. When drawing, you should also draw the in accordance to
energy level (higher-energy AOs should be drawn higher) and
paired >< unpaired
same-energy-level AOs should be drawn as “stuck” together.
HOW TO WRITE?
1. Base on the Aufbau Principle to determine which AOs has lower
energy level Aufbau Principle:
start
2. For each subshell s, p, d, f, you must know how many AOs are
there (l = 1 <=> s <=> 1 AO
l = 2 <=> p <=> 3 AOs
l = 3 <=> d <=> 5 AOs
l = 4 <=> f <=> 7 AOs) and add electrons in those orbitals
(maximize spins (+1/2) before pairing (add -1/2 spins)
3. Denote them as following:
number of electrons in that subshell
n - principle quantum number + shorten name of AO (s, p, d or f from values of l)
Example:
QUESTION:
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
HOW TO DO?
1. Remember and look at the Aufbau Principle to determine AOs
from lowest to highest: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 4d ...
start
#Remember: The number of possible AOs in a subshell:
s - 1 AO p - 3 AOs d - 5 AOs f - 7 AOs
Here, you only have 14 electrons of Si, thus, you only have to
take subshells that provides around 7 AOs => you only need:
1s (1AO) + 2s (1 AO) + 2p (3 AOs) + 3s (1 AO) + 3p (3 AOs)
AO with same n = 3, l = 1 have the same E
=> 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
}
level and are drawn as “stuck” together
2. Draw out orbitals as squares:

AO with same n = 2, l = 1 have the same E
E level and are drawn as “stuck” together
}
AOs with same n = 3 have similar
E level
}
Aufbau Principle:
} AOs with same n = 2 have similar E level
3. Fill 14 electrons in those orbitals

(next slide)
5 of these AOs should be square, I just use rectangles
because I couldn’t find an image with square shapes
HOW TO DO?
E
3. Fill 14 electrons in those orbitals (next slide)
#Remember: - 1 AOs can hold a maximum of 2 e
- maximize spins as much as possible
- electrons are filled from low to high E level
The first electron is filled in AO 1s with lowest energy
=>
level, spin +1/2
E The second electron is filled in AO 1s with lowest energy

level, spin -1/2. Now the AO 1s is fullfilled, we can move
to the next AO with higher E level: 2s.
We have 14 - 2 = 12 electrons left

HOW TO DO?
E
The third and fourth electrons are filled in the AO 2s, with
=>
the same manner with the AO 1s.
E Then, the AO 2s is fullfilled, now we can move to subshell

2p with 3 similar AOs 2p.
We have 14 - 2 - 2 = 10 electrons left.

HOW TO DO?
E
The fifth electron is filled in one AO 2p (first square), spin
=>
+1/2. To maximize spins, the 6th and 7th electrons are
filled in two other AOs 2p.
E Now we have 14 - 2 - 2 - 3 = 7 electrons left.
E
=>
HOW TO DO?
E
After the total spin of the 2p subshell is maximized
=>
(3 x +1/2 = +3/2) (3 unpaired electrons in each AO 2p), we
can start filling electrons with spin -1/2.
E Now we have 14 - 2 - 2 - 4 = 4 electrons left.
E
=>
HOW TO DO?
E
After fullfilling the 2p subshell, we can move to the 3s
=>
subshell and fullfill it like any other s subshell.
Now we have 14 - 2 - 2 - 6 - 2 = 2 electrons left. We shall
E fill them in the 3p subshell in the same manner with the
2p subshell.E
=>
HOW TO DO?
E
4. Now we shall count the number of e in each subshell
and denote them as regulations.
}
}
}
}
}
electrons 2 2 6 2 2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 => Choose A
P/S: Another tricky way: In B: the AO 3s (lower E) is not fullfilled <=> the AO 3p mustn’t be filled => B wrong
=> Choose A
SIMPLIFICATION - CONDENSED WRITING

We can simplify the electron configuration by the configuration of the inert gas of the previous period:
2
He - 2 e - 1s
2 6
Ne - 10 e - [He]2s 2p (2 + 8 e)
10 2 6
≡
Ar - 18 e - [Ne]3s2 3p6 (10 + 8 e) => In the previous question of Si: 1s22s22p6 3s23p2 [Ne]3s2 3p2
Kr - 36 e - [Ar]3d 4s 4p (18 + 10 + 8 e)
10 2 6
Xe - 54 e - [Kr]4d 5s 5p (36 + 10 + 8 e)
14 10 2 6
Rn - 86 e - [Xe]4f 5d 6s 6s (54 + 14 + 10 + 8 e)
14 10 2 6
Og - 116 e - [Rn]5f 6d 7s 7p (86 + 16 + 10 + 8 e)
02 EXCEPTIONS
NOTE: ALTHOUGH 3d HAS HIGHER ENERGY THAN 4s, OUR CONFIGURATION IS

WRITTEN IN THE ORDER OF DISTANCE FROM THE NUCLEUS. THAT’S WHY WE
m n n m
WRITE 3d 4s , not 4s 3d
Ions
Step 1: Write electron configuration of Atoms
3+ 6 2
Ex: To write Fe , we must know that Fe: [Ar]3d 4s
Step 2: Take away/Add the number of electrons,
in accordance to the electric charge of the ion
Ex: 3+ means 3 electrons less => Take 3 electrons out
of Fe in the order of outside to inside (opposite when
we construct the electron configuration)
6 2 + 6 1 2+ 6 0
Fe: [Ar]3d 4s --> Fe: [Ar]3d 4s --> Fe : [Ar]3d 4s
3+ 5
--> Fe : [Ar]3d 4s
0
≡ [Ar]3d
5
QUESTION: ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF
FE AND FE IONS (Explained in the Previous Slides)
QUESTION: ENERGY-LEVEL TRANSITIONS
You can write the electron configuration of both two ions

and see: the +6 ions has the configuratnio of an inert gas <=>
unexcitable <=> can’t absorb and emit photons <=> no color
=> green is the ion +5
Magnetism
All electrons are paired <=> Diamagnetism (No
magnetism)
Some/One electron(s) are/is unpaired <=>
Paramagnetism
5. Periodic Characteristics
Elements having similar electronic configuration have similar properties. The cause
of periodicity is the repetition of similar electronic configuration.
Elements with similar electronic structure of the outer shell (valence shell) : in the
same column.
5. Periodic Characteristics
Lines (Period) = progressive filling of subshells and shells (1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d,...
Columns (Group/Family) = repetition of electron configuration
V. The Periodic Table
1 Effective Nuclear
Charge 3 Ionization Energy
2 Sizes of Atoms and Ions

4 Electron Affinity
1. Effective Nuclear Charge
The force of attraction between an electron and the nucleus
the magnitude of the net nuclear charge acting on the
depends on: electron and
the average distance between the nucleus and the electron
Shielding Effect: Effective

In a many-
electron atom,
each electron is
Nuclear
Charge:
simultaneously
attracted to the
nucleus and net positive charge of the
repelled by the nucleus experienced by the
other electrons. outer electrons
1. Effective Nuclear Charge
CARBON SODIUM
V.
V. The
The Periodic
Periodic Table
Table
1.1. Effective
Effective Nuclear
Nuclear Charge
Charge
See Also:
In the periodic table. The effective nuclear charge
Penetration increases as we move across any row (period) of the
table.
Going down a column, the effective nuclear charge
(Previous experienced by valence electrons changes far less
than it does across a row.
Slides)
2. Size of Atoms and Ions
Size of Atoms
The closest distances separating the nuclei during
such collisions determine the apparent radii of the
argon atoms
minimal because going down in a group <=> adding

Although q (nucleus) increases, the effect of F is
Size increase because q (of the nucleus) gets less <=> Smaller F <=> bigger R
Huger F <=>
shells <=> R increase drastically

Smaller Radius
R: Cations (+) < Parent atoms (0) < Anions (-)
(q (nucleus) stays the same, while cations lose electrons >< anions gain electrons
Isoelectronic Series: Group of ions, atoms all containing the same number of
electrons
Ex: 10 electrons: R decreases: (because q (nucleus) increase <=> F increase)
3. Ionization Energy
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies
Definition:
the minimum energy required to remove
an electron from the ground state of the
isolated gaseous atom or ion
This trend exists because with each successive removal, an electron is being pulled away
from an increasingly more positive ion, requiring increasingly more energy. The trend is clear
with some exceptions which can be explained by the inert-gas electron configuration or the
half-filled state
3. Ionization Energy
4. Electron Affinity
Definition: the energy change that occurs when an electron is
added to a gaseous atom
The End! Do you have Any Question?
LEARNING
SUPPORT
CONTACT
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=100075782336371
Discord: https://discord.gg/BPe8RJDD
Email: learningsupport@st.usth.edu.vn

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4TH NOVEMBER 2023

Phuc Le Hoang Nguyen

02. Matter & Measurements

04. Electronic Structure of Atoms

05. Periodic Properties of Elements

Read selectively only!

2 Physical States of Matter 5 Uncertainty in

No Why? It has volume but no mass.

Antimatter: antiproton, posistron

Interaction of Particles Strong Moderate Weak Extremely weak

Density High Moderate Low Extremely Low

Volume Fixed Fixed Unfixed Unfixed

Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible Compressible

Stars, like the Sun Interstella Gas Clouds

Solarwinds Tails of Comets

FACT CHECK: IN ANY SAMPLE, THERE’S ALWAYS

Pressure Changes the distance and

Composition of the sample (NEXT SLIDE)

Heterogenous: non-uniform structure or

“Like Dissolve like”

NON-POLAR SOLUTE DISSOLVE IN NON-

There are lots of

Enthalpy: ΔH < 0 ΔH > 0

no change in chemical composition One or more substances are used up

Inexact number: those whose values have some incertainty

#Note: All numbers from experiment are inexact due to:

Determination: Rounding Rules

Following the normal rules:

12.0075 +10.025 = 22.0325 ≈ 22.032

Matter cannot be divided indefinitely. It should be composed of very small

1. Law of constant composition: In a given compound, the relative numbers and

2. Law of multiple proportions: If two elements A and B combine to form more

Volume Bigger Bigger Extremely small -27

Atom = electron shell (e) + nucleus (core, center) (p + n)

Atom = electron shell (e)(-) and nucleus (p, n)(+)

(different np+ nn) C:126C, 136C,146C

Only m C is 12 (an integer), m of other elements

aren’t necessarily integers = average mass of all isotopes

These are other names of

COMPOSITION ratio of small whole numbers (integers). Ex: the case of

a. 1:1 and 1:1.02 are definitely different

3 Quantum Numbers &

Notes: Valence electrons determine the chemical

Absorb light of a color <=>

=> only photons of some λ is released & only some λ is absorbed

=> elements with similar

Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

You don’t have to study this!

} double dumbell/others (l = 2) 2 nodal cones

YOU DON’T HAVE TO STUDY THIS

ORDERS: to higher energy levels. (Aufbau principle)

2. Draw out orbitals as squares:

} AOs with same n = 2 have similar E level

3. Fill 14 electrons in those orbitals

E The second electron is filled in AO 1s with lowest energy

We have 14 - 2 = 12 electrons left

E Then, the AO 2s is fullfilled, now we can move to subshell

We have 14 - 2 - 2 = 10 electrons left.

SIMPLIFICATION - CONDENSED WRITING

NOTE: ALTHOUGH 3d HAS HIGHER ENERGY THAN 4s, OUR CONFIGURATION IS

You can write the electron configuration of both two ions

2 Sizes of Atoms and Ions

Shielding Effect: Effective

minimal because going down in a group <=> adding