Department of Chemicals Sciences

Dr. N Zwane

Optometry Theory
Module code: CEM1CA1
Year : 2024
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 TEST DATES
THEORY TESTS AND VENUES

TEST 1 : 4 March 2024

TIME: 08:00-10:00
VENUE :

TEST 2: 22 April 2024

TIME: 08:00-10:00
VENUE :
 WHY STUDY CHEMISTRY?
Chemistry impacts on our world and daily living
 CAREERS INVOLVING CHEMISTRY

 Biology

 Engineering

 Agriculture
Chemistry is
 Geology
central
 Optometry
science
 Environmental Health

 Homeopathy

 Podatry
 OVERVIEW
 Properties and behaviour of matter are involved in the
following fields
 MODULE 1

AT T E R
I C AT I O N OF M
LA S S I F
C
INTRODUCTION

Matter

 Matter occupies space and has mass

 It is build up by small blocks called atoms

Classification of Matter

Matter can be classified by using:

1. Physical states
2. Composition
 PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Loose particles closer particles rigid particles

Easily compressible Fairly compressible Hard to compress
No definite shape No definite shape Fixed shape and
and volume distinct volume volume
Move at high speed
Collide repeatedly
Expands
 PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Gas particles are easily Liquid particles are a bit difficult to

compressed compress
 COMPOSITION OF MATTER
 Element- is made up of one type of atoms which cannot be chemically
broken down or decomposed into simpler substances.

 Pure substance- distinct properties and composition, no variation.

Law of constant composition: the elemental composition of a pure

compound is always the same

1.Monoatomic 2.Diatomic 3.Polyatomic

Definition Exists as single Exists as two Exists as more
atom atoms bonded than two atoms
together bonded
together
Example Argon (Ar); Oxygen (O2), Ozone (O3),
Neon (Ne) Chlorine (Cl2),
Nitrogen (N2)
structure
 ELEMENTS
 118 are registered and listed in the periodic table in an orders pattern of
groups and periods.
Action: revise periodic table
ELEMENTS
 COMPOUNDS
 Compound- caused by the reaction of elements, which are chemically
combined in a fixed ratio.

 Example: Water (H2O) has two elements of hydrogen and oxygen

Water is classified as a pure substance because its

composition is always the same (Law of constant composition)
 MIXTURES
Mixture- consist of different substances with their own chemical identity at
variable compositions.
Examples:
 Cup of coffee with sugar

 Sand, rocks, wood

 Air

 Salt and pepper/water

 TYPES OF MIXTURES
HETEROGENEOUS AND HOMOGENEOUS SUBSTANCES

Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Definition A uniform composition of a Non-uniform composition

substance / material of material through out
throughout
Examples Gases e.g. air ; N2; O2 Sand; rocks; wood
Liquids+ solids: salt and water oil + water
coffee and water

Properties components are combined Differences in

equally in a fixed ratio components are clearly
visible
Components cannot be Components are not
singled out equal
 SUMMARY OF MATTER COMPOSITION

Pure Substance

Made up of the same element OR same compound only that cannot be

separated by physical means.

e.g. an element- Ar, C, Se

a compound/ molecule – H2O

Pure substance has fixed composition and unique properties.

Mixtures

are a combination of different elements or compounds with no fixed ratios.

Mixtures are easily separated by physical means.

e.g. Sand and water

 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 Physical property: when a substance changes its physical state but the
composition remains the same.
 No new substance is produced.

 Properties of physical change are:

 Melting point
 Freezing point
 Boiling point
 Condensation
 Evaporation
 Odor
 Hardness
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Chemical properties

 one substance react with another to form a new product.

 the reaction of two substances result in a chemical change

Examples of Chemical Properties

 Reactions
Burning to form a new product
CHEMICAL VERSUS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MATTER
 Example of a chemical reaction

Iron nail coated with copper

 SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

Example : Separation of Iron and gold filings

 Separated individually by colour

 Magnetic approach to remove iron

 Extraction by using acids (iron is melted)

Filtration

 Boiling salt and water to remove water as vapour.

Distillation: the vapour turns back to water

Demo: ink separation by using Thin layer paper chromatography

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES

 Intensive properties- e.g. melting point, density, temperature do not depend

of the amount of the sample.

 Extensive properties- depend on the size of the sample.

 TEST DATES
THEORY TESTS AND VENUES

TEST 1 : 4 March 2024

TIME: 08:00-10:00
VENUE :

TEST 2: 22 April 2024

TIME: 08:00-10:00
VENUE :
QUANTUM NUMBERS AND ORBITALS

Schrödinger came up with the orbital concept

Orbital – defines the distribution of electron density in space in wave functions.

Characteristics of orbitals
 lowest energy of the orbital in hydrogen is -2.18 x10-18J
 this orbital has a certain energy and shape
 There are 3 types of quantum numbers to describe the orbitals

o Principal quantum number (n)

o Angular momentum Azimuthal quantum number (l)
o Magnetic quantum number (ml)
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

1. Principal quantum number (n)- describes the size of the orbital has 1,2,3…etc

 as n increases, the orbital increases

The orbital becomes larger

electrons spread away from the nucleus

electrons move to higher energies

electrons are less tightly bound to the nucleus

QUANTUM NUMBERS

2. Angular momentum (Azimuthal) quantum number- have values from 0 to n-1.

 defines the shape of the orbital.

 the values of n can be 0, 1, 2 and 3 and the correspond to letters as shown

below.

Value (l) 0 1 2 3

Letter used s p d f
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

3. Magnetic quantum number (ml): defines the orientation of orbital in space.

 its values are 0, l and -I

Definitions

 orbitals with the same value of n are known as electron shell.

 orbitals with the same n and I are known as subshell.
Relationship among values of n, l, ml

n Possible Designation Possible Number of Total

values of l Subshell values of ml orbitals in number of
Subshell orbitals

1 0 1s 0 1 1
2 0 2s 0 1 1
1 2p 1,0,-1 3 4
3 0 3s 0 1
1 3p 1,0,-1 3
2 3d 2,1,0,-1,-2 5 9
4 0 4s 0 1
1 4p 1,0,-1 3
2 4d 2,1,0,-1,-2 5
3 4f 3,2,1,0,-1,- 7 16
2,-3
 Representation of orbitals

The ways in which orbitals are pictured in space

Characteristics of 1s orbital
– is a spherical orbital, same shape but size differs
– electron density becomes more spread out as n increases
– important features, shape and sizes
P-ORBITALS

P-orbitals
 Have a dumbbell shape, 2 lobes
 Have 3 orientations, x, y, z directions

 Orbitals and their energies

 Increasing energy pattern, 1s<2s<2p < 3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d

Electron Spin and Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Hund’s Rule for Electron Configuration

• Fill the lowest energy level first

• When filling electrons into

orbitals with the same energy
(Degenerate orbitals)

• Fill each orbital with one

electron with the same spin

• Then they can be paired with

the opposite spin

Ca: 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
Condensed Electron Configuration

Ca: [Ar]4s2
ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
 1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

 Elements are arranged in order of increasing mass number in a periodic

table.

Macroscopic classification Microscopic classification

METALS METALLOIDS NON-METALS GROUP PERIOD

(Vertical (Horizontal
columns ) rows)

 Group - elements in a group have similar chemical and physical

properties.
 Atomic sizes
 Atomic sizes: increase from top to bottom in a GROUP.

 This is due to increase in a principal quantum number of valence electrons

 Valence electrons spend more time far away from the nucleus

 This causes the atom to increase in size

 Atomic sizes
 Atomic sizes: decrease from left to right in a PERIOD.

 This is due to increase in nuclear charge (Zeff)

 Increased nuclear charge (Zeff) draws electrons closer to it including valence electrons

 This causes the atom radius to decrease

 Sizes of Cations
 Ion sizes: depends on the distance between ions .

 Also depends on its nuclear charge (Zeff) and no. of valence electrons

 Cations are smaller because the electrons in valence shells are given away

 This causes a decrease in repulsions

 Hence the cations are smaller than the parent atoms

 Sizes of Anions
 Ion sizes: depends on the distance between ions .

 Electrons are added to a neutral atom

 This increases the electron-electron repulsions

 This causes the electrons to spread out in space

 Hence the anions are bigger than parent atoms

 Ionization energy
Ionization energy – energy required by an atom/ion to remove an electron from the
ground state of the isolated gaseous atom/ion.
Example: Al

Ionization energy 1
HOMEWORK (19 Feb 2024)

Al (g) Al +(g) + e- Find the 3 different ionization

energies (kJ/mol) to remove the
Ionization energy 2 3 electrons from Al

Al+(g) Al2+ + e-

Ionization energy 2

Al2+(g) Al3+ + e-
Ionization 1< Ionization energy 2< Ionization energy 3
 Electron affinity

Electron affinity – energy released to accept an electron at the ground state of

the isolated gaseous atom/ion.
Example: Cl

HOMEWORK (19 Feb 2024)

Electron affinity
Find the 2 different electron
Cl (g) + e- Cl- affinity energies (kJ/mol) to add
the 2 electrons to Sulphur

Electron affinity, -349 kJ/mol

ORGANIZATION OF THE ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Macroscopic Classification of elements:

Fill in the characteristics of the following.
Metals Nonmetals Metalloids

Shinny Gain electrons

Conduct electricity/heat Poor conductors of heat Semi conductors

High ionization/ Can be shinny

High melting pt brittle

Not brittle
Ductile
Malleable
 1.6 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT IN THE ATOM

 Shell Model (Bohr Model) – negatively charged electrons orbiting

around the positively charged nucleus.
 Their arrangement determine the chemical behavior of an element

 Electrons of similar energy are grouped in one energy level known as

a shell.

 Electrons with the lowest energy are closer to the nucleus.

 Electrons with the highest energy are far away from the nucleus.

 Principal quantum number (n): represents number of electrons in

shells. It also shows the electrons of similar energies.
 Electron Arrangement in the Atom
 The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus determine the
behavior of an element.
 A negative charge (from electrons) move around the positively
charged nucleus. This is known as a Shell Model or Bohr Model

 n1, n2 , n3 etc. are different energy

shells

 They contain electrons at each level

 Electrons in n1 are in the lowest

energy level and are closer to the
nucleus, therefore they have less energy

 Electrons in n3 are in highest energy

level and they have more energy.
ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT IN THE ATOM

 Valence shell: outermost occupied shell

of an atom e.g. n3.

n=3  Valence electrons: electrons in the

valence shell e.g. electrons in n3
n=2
n=1  Valence electrons correspond to the
group numbers and they are responsible
for bond formation.

Nucleus  Core electrons :electrons in fully

occupied shells.

 Core shells: shells containing core

electrons.
 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT IN THE ATOM

Shell Amount of electrons that can be

accommodated

n=1 2

n=2 8

n=3 18

NOTE: n2 can be filled only if n1 is full of electrons

n3 can be filled if n2 is full of electrons
 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT IN THE ATOM

Exercise 2
Draw the shell model for and electron configuration :
o neutral phosphorus .
o neutral oxygen
o Na+
o Cl-
 Irregular electron configurations
They deviate from the general rule only by last two-to-three electron positions. In these cases, the actual
electron configuration keeps the electrons in a lower-energy state than in a standard configuration for the
atom.
The irregular atoms are:
Cr (..., 3d5, 4s1);
Cu (..., 3d10, 4s1);
Nb (..., 4d4, 5s1);
Mo (..., 4d5, 5s1);
Ru (..., 4d7, 5s1);
Rh (..., 4d8, 5s1);
Pd (..., 4d10, 5s0);
Ag (..., 4d10, 5s1);
La (..., 5d1, 6s2);
Ce (..., 4f1, 5d1, 6s2);
Gd (..., 4f7, 5d1, 6s2);
Au (..., 5d10, 6s1);
Ac (..., 6d1, 7s2);
Th (..., 6d2, 7s2);
Pa (..., 5f2, 6d1, 7s2);
U (..., 5f3, 6d1, 7s2);
Np (..., 5f4, 6d1, 7s2)
Cm (..., 5f7, 6d1, 7s2).
 O N D I N G
I C A L B
C H E M
 CHEMICAL BONDING

AIM

 To reveal the origin of the differences between atoms of various

elements.

 How the chemical reactions take place to produce various chemical

products in laboratories.

 Indicates the importance of molecules in human life.

 CHEMICAL BONDING
2.1 Chemical bonding

All elements exist in nature exist in clusters of 2 or more bonded together.

 Why? Because in their highest energy level they must have 8 electrons (Octet rule).
This leads to chemical stability

 The elements that have atoms that do not have 8 electrons in their highest energy
levels will either, lose, gain or share their outer most electrons in the valence shell.

o This leads to chemical reactions

 Except for noble gases (group 8), THEY ALREADY HAVE

8 ELECTRONS IN THEIR OUTER MOST ENERGY LEVEL.
 2. CHEMICAL BONDING
The Octet Rule
Octet rule: atoms will gain or lose valence electrons until they become stable by being
surrounded by 8 electrons (noble gas arrangement) in their outer most energy level.

Noble gases (He, Ne, Ar...) are already stable

Lewis diagram indicate the valence electrons responsible for bond formation.
 CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bonding

 Chemical reactivity is the ability to make or beak bonds.

 Types of molecules that can be formed are listed below:

1. Diatomic 2. Cluster or Giant molecule

H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2 Blood, fats, graphite, plastics metals, salt
 2. CHEMICAL BONDING
2.1 Chemical bonding

3. Polyatomic molecule 4. Triatomic

OR

H3O+ hydronium ion, NH4+ ammonium ion Carbon dioxide, Water, ozone
 2. CHEMICAL BONDING
2.1.1 The Lewis Theory of Chemical bonding
How do atoms from elements bond?
Chemical bonding involves a pair of valence electrons.

Lewis structures indicate electrons in opposite spins in the form of dots

Number of valence electrons correspond to the group number in the periodic table.
Example 1: Hydrogen, H2,

Hydrogen is in group 1, therefore it has 1 valence electron

H +H H H

Covalent bonding
 2. CHEMICAL BONDING

Example 2
Draw a Lewis structure of HCl.
Form covalent bond: sharing of electrons
Answer Unequal sharing of electrons = polar
Non-metal Non-metal covalent bonding

H + Cl H Cl H Cl
Compound
Element Element in
or molecule
In group 1 group 7
has has
1 valence 7 valence
electron electrons
 CHEMICAL BONDING

Three types of chemical bonding

1. Covalent bonds- formed by sharing a pair of valence electron

between bonds.

2. Ionic bonds- electrostatic forces between positively and negatively

charged atoms. One element donates electrons to a more
electronegative element

3. Metallic bonds- metal next to each other share several

neighbouring electrons.
 CHEMICAL BONDING
Types of Bonding
Covalent Bonding
 Covalent bonding is formed by sharing a pair of valence electrons to
satisfy the Octet rule
 Covalent bonding occurs between two non-metals!!!!.
 They can form single bonds, double bonds or triple bonds.
Example 4 of nonpolar covalent bonding (equal sharing of
electrons)
Draw a Lewis structure of O2, H2.
Answer
Double bond

Single bond
 CHEMICAL BONDING
Covalent Bonding
Example 5
Lewis structure

H-Cl unequal sharing of electrons- polar covalent bonding

 CHEMICAL BONDING

2.2.1 Covalent Bonding

 CHEMICAL BONDING
Ionic Bonding
 Ions bonds are formed by atoms losing or gaining electrons to become stable
(achieve an Octet).

Ionic bonding occurs between a non-metal and a metal.

 Cation: loss of electrons results in an atom obtaining a positive charge (+) e.g.
Metal in group 1 (Na, K, Li)

 Anion: gain of an electron results in an atom obtaining a negative charge (-) e.g.
Non-metal group 7 (F, Cl, Br,I)

Ionic bonds: the oppositely charged ions are held together by electrostatic
attractions.
 CHEMICAL BONDING

Types of Bonding
Ionic Bonding

Example

Ionic bonds
Na+ Cl ─

Mg2+ O 2 ─
CHEMICAL BONDING

IONIC BONDING

Cl ─
Ca2+ Cl ─

Final ionic compound

Ionic Bonding
 2. CHEMICAL BONDING
2.2.2 Ionic Bonding
 2. CHEMICAL BONDING

• 2.2.3 Metallic Bonding: metal next to each other share several neighbouring
electrons.

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 2. CHEMICAL BONDING
 Ionic Compounds Versus Covalent Compounds.

Covalent bonds Ionic bonds

 Consist of gases (O2,H2,N2), Liquids  Consists of solids (huge rigid crystal

(CCl4) and solids (I2) lattices)
 Low melting points: due to the weak  High melting points: due to the
forces of attraction between the strong forces of attraction between the
molecules although the bonds are ions in the giant molecule
strong between the atoms.
 Soluble in covalently bonded  Soluble in polar solvents e. g. water
solvents (non-polar)e.g. petrol, paraffin or any other solvent that can break
. down the crystal lattice.

 Cannot conduct electric current  Solid compounds need to be melted

because it does not contain ions, even in water (solvent) before they can
in liquid state. conduct electricity.
 The melted lattice frees the ions to
move and conduct electricity.
 Bond Polarity

Bond polarity defines the sharing of electrons between atoms

Types of sharing electrons ?

1. Nonpolar covalent bond: equal sharing of electrons between the two atoms
that are covalently bonded

Cl2 , H2 Br2, F2
 Bond Polarity
2. Polar covalent bond: one atom has a greater attraction for electrons
than the other atom in a covalent bonding.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY

It is an ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself.

Differentiate the electronegativity from electron affinity.

Important conditions of electronegativity in an atom

Very negative electron affinity, high ionization energy

Atom attracts electrons from other atoms

Resists having its electrons attracted away

Therefore highly electronegative.

Electronegativity
 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)

The best arrangement given to electrons around the atoms to minimize

repulsion
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)

180°C

120°C

109.5°C
 RG ANI C
I NG I NO
NAM N DS
MP O U
CO
 NAMING INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Nomenclature (naming) and Writing Formulae: Covalent Compounds

Binary molecule- a molecule with 2 types of atoms.

e.g. H + Cl HCl

Left of the periodic table Right of the periodic table Hydrogen chloride

 Start from the left side of the periodic table and end with
the right side of it.
Add ide at the end of the element that is on the right – hand
side.
 CHEMICAL BONDING
 Nomenclature and Writing of Formulae
2.2.1 Covalent Compounds

 Elements in the same Group:

the lower element is written first followed by the higher one in the group. e. g. SiC – Silica
carbide

C same Group: when two elements can form more than one binary compound,
 Elements in the
Greek prefixes
Siare used to indicate the number of elements present:
 e.g. BrF3 – Bromine triflouride.

F
Br
 CHEMICAL BONDING

 Greek Prefixes used to indicate the number of elements involved in

a binary compound.

Compound Greek Prefix

CO mono one carbon monoxide

CO2 di two carbon dioxide
NI3 tri three Nitrogen triiodide
CCl4 tetra four Carbon tetrachloride
PCl5 penta five Phosphorus pentachloride
 CHEMICAL BONDING
Polyatomic cations have names ending with ium.

NH4+ ammonium ion

H3O+ hydronium ion

Others end with ate, ite

CO32- (Carbonate ion),

NO2- (nitrite ion)
NO3- (nitrate ion)
 Do not mention the subscripts!!!!
2.2.2 Ionic Compounds
CHEMICAL BONDING
Naming Ionic Compounds
Cations: lose electrons which results in an atom obtaining a positive charge.
Metals are formed from the metal atoms and have the same name as the metal.
Example: 1. Na+- sodium ion – lost 1 electron
Na+ + Cl- → NaCl sodium chloride

2. Mg 2+ - magnesium ion – lost 2 electrons

Mg 2+ + O2- → MgO Magnesium oxide/ magnesium monoxide

3. Al3+ - aluminium ion - lost 3 electrons

Al3+ + O2- → Al2O3 aluminium oxide


 CHEMICAL BONDING
2.2.2 Ionic Compounds

 Transition metals: their charges/ions depend on the charges of the other

element that it has formed a compound with.

Example: Fe2+ iron (II) ion (ferrous ion) in FeO = iron (II) oxide
Fe3+ iron (III) ion (ferric ion) in Fe2O3 = iron (III) oxide

The numbers are always given in Roman numerals when dealing with
transition metals.
 NAMING ANIONS
NAME FORMULA
Ammonium NH4+
Hydronium H3O+
Hydroxide OH-
Carbonate CO32-
Hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate)
HCO3-
Nitrite
NO2-
Nitrate
Phosphate NO3-
Peroxide PO43-
Sulfite O22-
Hydrogen sulphite SO32-
Sulphate HSO3-
Hydrogen sulphate
SO42-
Thiosulphate
HSO4-
Hypochlorite
Chlorite S2O32-
Chlorate ClO-
Perchlorate ClO2-
Chromate ClO3-
Dichromate ClO4-
Permanganate CrO42-
 CHEMICAL BONDING
Summary
Monatomic anions from group 5,6,7 have names ending with ide.
Because they gain electrons to reach their octet.
N3- Nitrogen-nitride ion, Cl- Chloride .

Sum of the charges must be zero.

Examples: for neutral combinations
K+ MnO4- K+ MnO4- ratio 1 : 1

Ca2+ Cl- CaCl2 ratio 1:2

Transition metals
AuCl3
Au3+ 3Cl- Au (III)Cl
 CHEMICAL BONDING
 Acids
An acid is a substance that donates hydrogen when it dissolved in water.
 The first element is H, then followed by other atoms.
 Acids are formed by cation + anion to balance the charge.
Example:
1. H+ + Cl- → HCl
hydrogen ion chloride hydrochloric acid

 Acid based on anions whose names end with ide :

- have hydro as a prefix.
- end with ic.
2. SO42- has a -2 charge, needs +2 to balance (2× H) H 2SO4
 CHEMICAL BONDING
Acids based on anion whose names ends with ate have:
acids ending with ic.

Example : Anion (ClO 4-) Acid (HClO 4-)

perchlorate perchloric acid

Acids based on anions whose names end in –ite, have acids with an -ous.

 Example : Anion (ClO -) Acid (HClO)

hypochlorite hypochlorous acid
 TUTORIAL SESSION

• 21 February 2024
• Matter
• Atomic structure, chemical bonding, molecular geometry and naming
 TEST DATES
THEORY TESTS AND VENUES

TEST 1 : 4 March 2024

TIME: 08:00-10:00
VENUE :

TEST 2: 22 April 2024

TIME: 08:00-10:00
VENUE :
 CTI O NS
AL REA
CHE MI C
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND REACTIONS

 Chemical equation: shows the reactants and products.

reactants
product
H2 + O2 → H 2O

 Chemical equations must be balanced.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Coefficients: written when it is greater than 1
 The physical states (phases) of reactants and products must be included in an equation:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 H2O (l)
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND REACTIONS
Summary of balancing equations

 Metals are balanced first

 Non-metals are balanced secondly

 If O or H appears mostly in the equation, H must be balanced last.

 The chemical equation is balanced from left to right.

 Add the physical states of substances

 Check if the equation is balanced from both sides

 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Combination reactions: two substances combine to form a third substance (one product or
compound ).
A + B → AB

2. Decomposition reactions: a substance is decomposed to produce two or more other

products for an example in the presence of heat.

AB → A + B
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

3. Single Replacement reactions: one substance is replaced by another substance.

A + BC → AC + B

Zn (s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu (s)

Cl2 (g) + 2NaBr(aq) → NaCl(aq) + Br 2(l)

4. Exchange (Metathesis) reactions: in aqueous solutions where cations and anions

exchange partners.
AX + BY → A Y + BX
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 Exercise 1

Balance and identify the following types of reactions.

(a) SiCl4 + Mg → MgCl2 + Si

(b) NaNO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + HNO3

(c) Cr + Cl2 → CrCl3

Solubility guidelines

Soluble Compounds Important Exceptions

NO3- None

Cl-, Br-, I- Compounds containing Ag+,

Pb+, Hg2+

SO42- Compounds containing Sr2+,

Ba2+, Hg2+, Pb2+

Group 1 none
Solubility guidelines

Insoluble compounds Important Exceptions

OH- Compounds in Group 1,

NH4+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+

CO32- Compounds in Group 1 and

NH4+

P043- Compounds Gr 1 and NH4+

S2- Compounds in Gr 1, NH4+,

Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
 Molecular Equation
Precipitate formation
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2 (s)

Ionic Equation

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) 2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + PbI2(s)

Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) PbI2(s)

K+ and NO3- appear on both sides in the same state they do not change

Called Spectator
ions
 O N A N D
X I D AT I
O T I ON
RE D U C
 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Why are redox reactions important?

 They are taking place in industry

 Have effect on storage

 Effect on personal safety

 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION
Why are redox reactions important?
 Example: in metal coating redox reactions are used

Before: CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s)→ FeSO4(aq) + Cu (s)

After: Fe(s) + Cu2+ (aq)→ Fe2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

• Half reactions
Fe (s) → Fe2+ (aq) + 2e- (loss of electrons by Fe is called oxidation)

Fe is oxidized by Cu, therefore Cu is an oxidizing agent

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu (s) (electron gain by Cu is called reduction)

Cu is reduced by Fe, Fe is a reducing agent

Refer to page 61
RULES FOR ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBERS
Substance Oxidation number

1.Element ON =0 e.g. Mg, Na, Cr

2. monatomic ion ON = is equal to the charge of the ion

e.g. Na+, oxidation number is +1
Cl- , oxidation number is -1
Mg2+, oxidation number is +2

3. Oxygen ON = -2, EXCEPTION H2O2, ON = -1

4.Hydrogen ON = +1,e.g in HCl , ON=+1, EXCEPTION

binary compounds e.g. CaH2, ON = -1
5. Halogens ON= -1 e.g. F = -1

6. Compounds and ions Sum of the ON of the atoms IN NEUTRAL

COMPOUND = 0 e.g. KBr = 0
Sum of the ON of the atoms IN polyatomic
ion = charge of ion e.g. CO32-
 BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS

1.Oxidation numbers

2 Na(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2 NaCl (s)

ON FOR Na 0 +2 (lost electrons, oxidized)

ON FOR Cl2: 0 -2 (gained electrons, reduced

2. Separate the equation into half reactions: one with oxidation and one with reduction

Oxidation : 2Na(s) → 2Na+(s) + 2e-

oxidation no. 0 +2 -2

Reduction : Cl2 (g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (g)

oxidation no. 0 -2 -2
 REDOX REACTIONS

Balanced equation:

Oxidation : 2Na(s) → 2Na+(s) + 2e-

Reduction : Cl2 (g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (g)

2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2Na+ + 2Cl-

 BALANCING REDOX EQATIONS
STEP 1. Assign oxidation numbers

+6 +2 +3 +3
Cr2O72- + Fe2+ →
Cr3+ + Fe3+

Cr is reduced: gained electrons

Fe is oxidized: lost electrons

STEP 2. Write balanced half reactions

Cr2O72- →
2 Cr3+ (reduction)

Fe2+ →
Fe3+ (oxidation)
 BALANCING REDOX EQATIONS

STEP 3. Balance O by adding H2O to the other side that needs O

Cr2O72- →
2Cr3+ + 7H2O

Fe2+ →
Fe3+
 BALANCING REDOX EQATIONS

STEP 4. Balance H by adding H + to the other side that needs H

Cr2O72- + 14H+ →
2Cr3+ + 7H2O

Fe2+ →
Fe3+

STEP 5. Balance the charge by adding electrons

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- →

2Cr3+ + 7H2O (reduction)
(-2) (+14) (-6) (+6) 0

Fe2+ →
Fe3+ + e- (oxidation)
+2 +3 -1
OXIDISING, REDUCING AGENTS AND BALANCING REDOX EQATIONS

STEP 6. Cancel anything that is the same on both sides

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

6 Fe2+ → 6 Fe3+ + 6e-

Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6 Fe2+ →

2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6 Fe3+
SUMMARY ON BALANCING REDOX REACTIONS

1. Divide the redox reaction into 2 half reactions.

2. Balance atoms other than O and H.
3. Balance O by adding H2O on the other side
4. Balance H by adding H+ on the other side
5. Balance the net charge by adding electrons (e-)
6. Make the electron gain= electron loss, add the 2 half reactions
7. Cancel anything that is the same on both reactions
 BALANCING REDOX EQATIONS

Exercise
Balance the following reaction
Identify oxidising and reducing agent

1.Half reactions
 OXIDISING, REDUCING AGENTS AND BALANCING
REDOX EQATIONS
2. Balancing H and O

3. Adding electrons to balance the charges

 OXIDISING, REDUCING AGENTS AND BALANCING
REDOX EQATIONS
4. Multiplying the 1st reaction by 5 and the second reaction by 2 to
balance electrons.

5. Combine the two reactions to cancel electrons, H+ and H2O

 HOMEWORK 26 Feb 2024

RESEARCH ABOUT SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND

APPLICATION!!!
BALANCING REDOX IN BASIC SOLUTIONS
BALANCING REDOX IN BASIC SOLUTIONS
 M E T RY
O I C H I O
S T
 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

AIM

To investigate the interaction of molecules with each other:

 The formulas are used to calculate the mass, molar mass and the
percent composition.

 To define the mole

 To identify four types of chemical reactions and their general

equations.
 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
3.1 Atomic Masses

 The atomic masses are measured in atomic mass units (amu).

1 amu = 1.661 × 10-24g

Because atoms are too small to be expressed in gram

Example : 12C atom has an atomic mass of 12 amu.

 Formula Weight: is the sum of all the atomic weights in a chemical

formula. In case of a molecule, it is known as molecular weight.

o Atomic weights is the same as the atomic mass in the periodic table.
 ATOMIC MASSES

The atomic masses are measured in atomic mass units (amu).

1 amu = 1.661 × 10-24g
Example : 12C atom ha an atomic mass of 12 amu.

 Formula Weight: is the sum of all the atomic weights in a chemical

formula. In case of a molecule, it is known as molecular weight.

o Atomic weight is the same as the atomic mass in the periodic table.

mass number

Atomic number
12
6 C
 ATOMIC MASSES

Example 1
Formula weight of H2SO4 = 2 × (AW of H) + (AW of S) + 4 × (AW of O)
= 2 × (1 amu) + (32.1 amu) + 4 × (16.0 amu)
= 98.1 amu
Example 2
Molecular weight of Ca(NO3)2 = (AW of Ca) + 2 × (AW of N) + 6 × (AW of O)
= 40.1 amu + 2 × (14.0amu) + 6 × (16.0 amu)
= 164.1 amu
Exercise 1

Molecular weight of C6H12O6 =

Molecular weight of NaCl =

 ATOMIC MASSES

Example 3
Formula weight of Ca(OH)2 = 1× (AW of Ca) + 2×(AW of O) + 2 × (AW of H)
= 1 × (40 amu) + 2×(16 amu) + 2 ×(1 amu)
= 74 amu
Example 2
Molecular weight of Ca(NO3)2 = (AW of Ca) + 2 × (AW of N) + 6 × (AW of O)
= 40.1 amu + 2 × (14.0amu) + 6 × (16.0 amu)
= 164.1 amu
Exercise 1

Molecular weight of C6H12O6 =

Molecular weight of NaCl =

 THE MOLE

 Normally atoms are too small.

 They group themselves for us to actually see them.

 The mol: is the amount of substance that contain as many

elementary particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C.

 1 mole particle = 6.022 × 1023 particles (known as Avogadro’s

number).Particles can be molecules (particles).

 1 mole particle = 6.022 × 1023 molecules. This is known as

Avogadro’s number
 THE MOLES
Example 1: Calculate the number of H atoms in 0.350 mol of C6H12O6
o Given 0.350 mol of C6H12O6

amount of moles molecular formula

o Moles C6H12O6 molecules C6H12O6 atoms of H

o 1 mole C6H12O6 has 6.022 × 1023 molecules

o 6.022 × 1023 molecule C6H12O6 has 12 H atoms.

0.350 mol C6H12O6 (6.022 × 1023 molecule C6H12O6) (12 atoms) C6H12O6
(1mol C6H12O6 ) (1 molecule)

= 2.528 × 1024 H atoms

 THE MOLE

Exercise 3
1.
How many oxygen atoms are in 0.25 mol of Ca(NO3)2?

Answer: 9.0 × 1023 O atoms.

2.
How many oxygen atoms are in 1.50 mol of sodium carbonate?

Answer : 2.71 × 1024 O atoms.

 MOLAR MASS
Molar mass: is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance .

The units are gram per mole (g.mol-1 or g/mol).

Molar mass = formula weight.

Example 1: Calculate the molar mass of O atom

16
O atom weighs 16 amu or 16 u
Molar mass is 16 g or 16 g/mol

Example 2: Calculate the molar mass of H2SO4

Formular weight = 2× (AW of H) + (AW of S) + 4 × (AW of O)
2× 1 amu + 32.1 amu + 4 × 16.0 amu
98.1 amu
Therefore the molar mass = 98.1 g/mol
(1mol of this substance has 98.1g)
 INTERCONVERTING MASSES AND MOLES
 Mass in grams moles.
Example 1 : Calculate the number of moles of C 6H12O6 in 5.380 g of C6H12O6.
Answer:
Strategy = changing grams (g) to moles (mol).

Molar mass of C6H12O6 = 180.1548 g/ mol

Therefore 1 mol C6H12O6 = mass (g) / molar mass (g/mol)

Moles of C6H12O6 = 5.380 g

180.1548g/ mol
= 0.02986 mol C6H12O6
 INTERCONVERTING MASSES AND MOLES

 Example 2
1. Calculate the mass in grams of 0.433 mol of calcium nitrate (CaNO3)2

Strategy: convert MOLE TO MASS (g)

Molar mass Ca(NO3)2 is 164.1 g/mol

mass = moles x molarmass

Mass Ca(NO3)2 = 0.433mol (CaNO3)2 (164.1g (CaNO3)2 )

(1 mol (CaNO3)2 )
= 71.1 g (CaNO3)2
INTERCONVERTING MASSES, MOLES, MOLECULES AND ATOMS

2. Calculate the number of calcium nitrate molecules in 0.433 mol of calcium

nitrate (CaNO3)2
Strategy: convert MOLE TO MOLECULE
Number of molecules = 0.433 mole × 6.02 × 1023 molecules/ mole

= 2.61 × 1023 molecules

3. Calculate the number of calcium atoms in 0.433 mol of calcium nitrate

(CaNO3)2
Strategy: convert MOLECULE TO ATOM

Number of Ca atoms = 2.61 × 1023 molecules × 2 Ca atoms/ molecule

= 5.22 × 1023 Ca atoms
 INTERCONVERTING MASSES AND NUMBER OF PARTICLES
 Example 1
a) How many glucose molecules are in 5.23 g of C6H12O6?

Answer:
a) Strategy convert mass (g) moles molecules

Molecular weight C6H12O6 = 180.0 g C6H12O6

1 mol C6H12O6 : 5.23 g / 180.0 g C6H12O6

= 0.029 moles

Molecules = 0.029 moles C6H12O6 (6.022 ˣ 1023 molecules)/mole

= 1.75 ˣ 1022 molecules of C6H12O6

 INTERCONVERTING MASSES AND NUMBER OF PARTICLES
 Example 1

b) How many oxygen (O) atoms are in this sample?

Answer:

Strategy convert molecules atoms

1 Molecule C6H12O6 : 6 O atoms

Atoms = 1.75 ˣ 1022 C6H12O6 molecules (6 O atoms)

(1molecule C6H12O6)

= 1.05 ˣ 1023 O atoms

 INTERCONVERTING MASSES AND NUMBER OF PARTICLES

 Exercise 1

a) How many nitric acid molecules are in 4.20 g of HNO3?

b) How many O atoms are in this sample?
 INTERCONVERTING MASSES AND NUMBER OF PARTICLES

 Exercise 1

Answer

a) 4.01 ˣ 10 22 molecules of HNO3

b) 1.20 ˣ 10 22 O atoms
 INTERCONVERTING MASSES AND NUMBER OF PARTICLES

Mass (g) Moles (mol) Molecule Atom

 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

 The percentage by mass that is contributed by each element in a substance

% Composition =(number of atoms per element) ˣ (atomic weight) ˣ100

Molar mass of the compound(C 12H22O11)

Example: Calculate the % composition of each element in C 12H22O11.

Molar mass= molecular weight= 12(12.0 amu)+ 22(1.01amu)+ 11(16.0amu)
= 342 amu
% C = 12 ˣ 12.0 amu ˣ 100%
342 amu
= 42.1 %
% H = 22 ˣ 1.01 amu ˣ 100%
342 amu
= 6.4 %
 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
% Composition = (number of atoms per element) ˣ (atomic weight) ˣ100 % Molar mass
of the compound(C12H22O11)

Example: Calculate the % composition of each element in C12H22O11.

Molar mass= molecular weight= 12(12.0 amu)+ 22(1.01amu)+ 11(16.0amu)
= 342 amu
% H = 22 ˣ 1.01 amu ˣ 100%
342 amu
= 6.4 %
% O = 11 ˣ 16.0 amu ˣ 100%
342 amu
= 51.5 %
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND REACTIONS

 Law of conservation of matter (mass): atoms are neither created

nor destroyed.

 Stoichiometry: amounts of elements involved in a reaction.

 Law of constant composition / definite proportions: all pure samples

of the same chemical compound contain the same elements in the
same proportion by mass.
Home work 28 Feb 2024

1. Consider the compound aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3 and answer the

following questions.

1.1 Calculate the molar mass of Al2(SO4)3. (2)

1.2 Calculate the percentage composition of each element in Al2(SO4)3. (6)

1.3 Calculate the number of moles in 2.5 g of Al2(SO4)3. (2)

1.4 Calculate the number of O atoms in Al2(SO4)3. (3)

[13]
Limiting reagent, excess reagent and theoretical yield

Limiting reagent- gets used up before the other reagent

Excess reagent- reagent that remains

Theoretical yield- amount of product formed depending on the limiting reagent

Example:
A strip of zinc metal with a mass of 2.00 g is placed in an aqueous solution containing
2.50 g of silver nitrate.
a) Which reagent is limiting?
b) What is the mass of silver that will be formed?
c) What is the excess reagent that will remain?
d) Calculate the percentage yield if 1.20g of zinc nitrate were produced.
Calculations

Zn(s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) 2Ag(s) + Zn(NO3)2 (aq)

2.00 g 2.50 g

a. No of moles (Zn) = 2.00 g/65.39 g/mol = 0.03059 mol of Zn

No of moles of AgNO3 = 2.50 g/169.874g/mol = 0.01472 mol AgNO3

Moles of AgNO3 needed to react with Zn = 2 mol AgNO3/1 mol Zn (0.03059) = 0.06118 mol AgNO3

Therefore AgNO3 has 0.01472 < the needed moles of 0.06118 , AgNO3 is limiting reagent

b. 2 AgNO3 2Ag

Therefore mol of AgNO3 = mol of Ag= 0.01472 mol

Mass of Ag = Mol x Molarmass

= 0.01472 mol x 107.87 g Ag/mol

= 1.59 g of Ag produced
 Calculations

Zn(s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) 2Ag(s) + Zn(NO3)2 (aq)

Initially 0.03059 mol + 0.01472 mol

c) Moles of Zn needed to react with AgNO3= 1 molZn/2 mol AgNO3 (0.01472)

= 0.007360 mol

Reacted moles = Initial moles – excess moles

Theerefore excess moles = Initial moles – Reacted moles

0.03059 mol – 0.007360 mol

0.02323 mol Zn in excess

Mass of Zn in excess = mol of Zn in excess x 65.39 g/mol

= 1.52 g
Actual Yield

Percent Yield Formula

Percent yield = (actual yield/theoretical yield) x 100%

actual yield is the amount of product obtained from a chemical reaction

theoretical yield is the amount of product obtained from the stoichiometric or

balanced equation,

Percentage yield depends on the limiting reactant to determine product

Calculations

Actual yield is
1.20 g

Theoretical yield due to

stoichiometry 1.39 g
Errors that can occur during percent yield calculation and

1. Percent yield can be more than 100%,

2. which means more sample was recovered from a reaction than predicted.

3. This can happen when other reactions were occurring that also formed the product.

4. It can also be a source of error if the excess is due to incomplete removal of water or other
impurities from the sample.

Percent yield is always a positive value.

 Solutions

Definitions

Solution -Solute dissolves in a solvent to make a solution

Concentration- amount of solute dissolved in a total solution

Concentrated solution- high concentration of solute in a solution

Dilute solution- less concentration of solute in a solution

 CONCENTRATION
Molar concentration (Morality)
 Molar concentration of a solute in solution = amount of solute (moles) contained in 1L of that
solution.

 Units of concentration = solute (moles) = mol OR mol/L OR mol.L-1

1 L solution L

 Concentration (C) = number of moles (n) of solute in mol

volume of solution (V) in L

C = n
V

 Volume must be always in litres (convert the units)

 Concentration
 Example 1

Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 3.00 mol of solute in 500mL of

solution.

Data given: Molarity formula (C = n / V )

n = 3.00 mol
V = 500 mL, so (1L = 1000 mL) Therefore, 0.500 L

C = 3.00 mol = 6 .00 mol/L OR 6.00 M

0.500L
 Concentration
 Example 2

What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.50 g of calcium nitrate in enough water to make
200 mL of solution.

Data given: Molarity formula (C = n / V )

calcium nitrate = Ca(NO3)2
g = 2.50 ( to convert g mol we need,
molar mass Ca(NO3)2 = 164.1g/mol (164.1 g = 1mol)
n =?
V = 200 mL, so 1L = 1000 mL = 0.200 L
moles of Ca(NO3)2 = 2.50 g/164.1 g/mol = 0.0152 mol

C of Ca(NO3)2 = 0.0152 mol/ 200 x10-3 L = 0.076 mol/L

Concentraction

Example 2 Continues

What is the concentration of NO3- in Ca(NO3)2?

Ca(NO3)2 2NO3-

Therefore concentration of NO3- =( 2x 0.076) mol/ L = 0.152 mol/L

 Concentration

 Example 2 (continue)
converting g mol , n = m
M

n = 2.50 g = 0.0152 mol

164.1 g/mol

Calculation of concentration

C = n = 0.0152 mol = 0.0760 mol/L or 0.0760 M

V 0.200 L
 Concentration

 Exercise 1
How many grams of sodium hydroxide are required to prepare 600 mL
of a 0.450 M solution.
 DILUTION

TO PREPARE A DILUTE SOLUTION FROM A CONCETRATED SOLUTION

Add a solvent

Dilute solution

Moles of concentrated = moles of dilute solution

Dilution
 MASS CONCENTRATION

 Mass percentage (% m/m) : total mass percentage of the solute in

a solution

 Mass percentage = mass of solute (grams) × 100 %

% m/m mass of solution (grams)

 Example 1:
A 70 % solution of nitric acid:
is made up of 70g of HNO3 per 100g of solution (solvent),
70 g solute × 100 = 70 %
100 g solution
 CONCENTRATION
 Mass/mass percentage (% m/m) composition of mixtures
Example 2
 How many grams of hydrochloric acid does 1000 g of a 25 % (m/m) hydrochloric
acid solution contain?

% m/m = g HCl × 100

1000g solution
34 % = g HCl × 100
1000g solution

g HCl = 34 % × 1000g
100 %

= 340 g HCl
 CONCENTRATION

 Mass/volume percentage (% m/v) composition of mixtures

 Mass of the solute per 100 mL of solution

 Concentration %(m/v) = mass of solute (g) × 100

volume of solution (mL)
 Volume can be left in mL.

Example 1:
20 % (m/v) salt solution is made by dissolving 20 g of salt in water so
that the total volume of the solution is 100 mL.
 CONCENTRATION

 Volume/volume percentage (% v/v) composition of two liquids

 Concentration %(v/v) = volume of solute (mL) × 100

volume of solution (mL)

Example 1:
50 % (v/v) alcohol means that the solution is made by mixing 50 mL of
alcohol with water to make a total volume of 100 mL solution.
 CONCENTRATION
Examples of concentrations.
% m/m % m/v %v/v
CONCENTRATION
Example of PPM, PPB dilute solutions

A solution of SO2 in water contains 0.00023 g of SO2 per litre of solution.

Express the concentration of the solution in

% m/v
ppm
ppb
Solution to exercise
 Preparation of Solutions
Homework 28 Feb 2024

1. What is the mass of NaOH is needed to neutrilise 20.00 mL of 0.150 M H2SO4

NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

2. What volume(mL) of 0.500 M HCl is needed to react completely with 33.0 g of Pb(NO3)2

2HCl (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) PbCl2 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq)

3. What is the concentration (M) of a H2SO4 solution if 25.70 mL of the H2SO4 are neutralized by 20.00 mL of a 0.1045 M NaOH
solution?

NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

4. Calculate the percentage yield if 8.5 g of silver phosphate were produced when 70.5 g of potassium phosphate were mixed
with 150 ml of 0.50 M silver nitrate.

K3PO4 (aq) + 3 AgNO3 (aq) 3KNO3 (aq) + Ag3PO4 (s)