Module 1: Properties and Structure of Matter

 Properties of Matter

Homogenous mixtures: those which appear to have a uniform composition throughout, even at microscopic scales.
They are not obviously composed of different things mixed together.

e.g. sea water, clean air, glass

Heterogeneous mixtures: those which are obviously composed of different substances

e.g. salad dressing, sand and dirt mixture

Comparing separation techniques:

The type of mixture and Difference In Properties (D.I.P) tells us which technique of separation to use

type of mixture example Separation technique diagram

Dissolved solid/liquid Sugar and tea Evaporation and
distillation

Solid/solid Sand and rocks Using a sieve

Suspended solid/ liquid Sand and water filtration

Miscible - liquid/ liquid Oil and petrol Fractional distillation *refer to diagram 1*
 Immiscible – liquid/ liquid Oil and water Using a separating funnel

Gas/ gas Oxygen and nitrogen Fractional distillation *refer to diagram 1*

Inorganic substance: those not based on carbon

Ionic compound – metal and a non-metal

- Metal written first

- Ending of non-metal is changed e.g. chloride, oxide, fluoride
- Use the cross over method e.g. Fe3+ + O2+ = Fe2O3
NOTE: Polyatomic ions have their own valencies

Common polyatomic ions Formula Charge

Nitrate NO3 -
Sulfate S04 2-
Carbonate CO3 2-
hydroxide OH -

Covalent Compound – 2 non-metals

- Element that is furthest to the left in the PT is written first

- Second non-metal will have the end of its name changed
- Prefix is used on both non-metals to indicate the number of atoms of each element present

Number of atoms present Prefix

1 Mono
2 Di
3 Tri
4 Tetra
5 Penta
6 Hexa
7 Hepto
8 Octa
9 Hona
10 Deca

Chemical properties of elements

The elements are placed on the PT in order of atomic number and atomic structure.

- Elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons, therefore they have the same
chemical properties

Physical properties of elements

 Metals Non-metals
Shiny Dull
Solid at room temp (NOTE: mercury is a liquid) Brittle
Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable Some solid, most gases at room temp (NOTE: bromine is
liquid
High boiling and melting point Low boiling point
ductile

Physical properties of ionic compounds

- For crystal lattices

- Hard
- Brittle
- High melting and boiling points
- Conduct electricity when dissolved in water

 Atomic Structure and Atomic Mass

Isotopes: atoms of the same element (same atomic number) but with different numbers of neutrons and different
atomic mass numbers. Their chemistry is the same

Stable isotope: an isotope that has a balance of protons and neutrons (stable ration of protons: neutrons) and is below
the atomic number 82.

p: n ratio
1-50 = 1:1
50-82 = 1:1.2
82+ = 1:1.5

Lewis dot diagrams – only shows outer shell

Atoms of an element Molecule

Electron dot diagram

Symbols on the PT

spdf sub orbitals

p - holds 6e- (2 in each)

NOTE: the f shell holds 14e- but it’s image is unknown

Electronic configuration and spdf notation

The maximum number of electrons in the principle shell is given by the formula:

No. of electrons = 2n^2

Where n is the number of shells

e.g. 2nd shell can have 8 (2x2^2)

The electrons fill the subshells in the following order:

Calculating Relative Atomic Mass

Relative Atomic Mass Number is the mass number shown on the PT for each element. It is the average of all the atomic
mass numbers of the isotopes.

e.g. a sample of chlorine is found to contain 77% Cl-35 and 23% CL-37
 RAM = 35 x 77/100 + 37 x 23/100 = 35.46

Unstable isotopes

The stability of an isotope is determined by two factors:

1. Size of the nucleus – elements above 82 are considered large and unstable
2. The ratio of neutrons to protons

NOTE: refer back to the start of atomic structure and mass

Beta-decay - type 2

If there is an excess of neutrons, a “nuclear reaction” occurs which converts a neutron into a proton plus and electron.

- The number of neutrons then decreases by 1

- atomic number goes up by
- an extra electron is ejected a high speed = beta particle

e.g.

Alpha- decay - type 1

Occurs in atoms which have a very large nucleus and are unstable. The achieve greater stability, the nucleus releases an
alpha particle (2 neutrons and 2 protons) to reduce the size of the nucleus.

- Mass number decreases by 4

- Atomic number decreases by 2

e.g.

types of radiation

Radioisotope: an isotope of an element that has unstable nuclei and emits alpha, beta and/or gamma radiation.

Factor Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation

Structure Particles Particles Electromagnetic
radiation
Consists of Helium nucleus (2 Electron High frequency radiation
protons and 2 neutrons)
Charge +2 -1 Nil
Ionising ability Good Fair Poor
Penetration Poor (2-10cm in air) Fair (5m in air, 2mm in Very good (several cm of
aluminium) lead)
Deflection in electric field Towards negative plate Towards positive plate Nil
  Periodicity

Relationships in the trends on the PT

Atomic radius

- Increased down a group: you are adding an extra electron shell as you move down, making the atomic radius
larger. The valence electrons are also further away from the nucleus, making them less strongly attracted to
the nucleus, allowing them to spread out further.
- Decreases across a period: protons are being added across the period, increasing the positive charge on the
nucleus and attracting the electrons more strongly towards the nucleus. Thus pulling them closer to to nucleus,
making the atoms smaller.

States of matter

- Elements at room temp vary from solid Liquid gas across a period
- Most metals are solid at room temp, and non-metals tend to be gases or soft solids. Only mercury and bromine
occur naturally as liquids.

Electronic configuration

- The number of electrons in an atom increases across a period and down a group
- The number of electrons in the valence shell increases a period and stays the same in a group
- Electronic configuration gets larger/ increases across a period and down a group

Electronegativity

The power of an atom to attract electrons to itself.

- Non-metals are more electronegative than metals

- Decreases down a group: as the size of the atoms increases, electrons are further from the nucleus so bonding
electrons are less strongly attracted to the nucleus
- Increases across a period: the atomic radius decreases across the period, thus any electrons being accepted
from other atoms can get closer to the nucleus. Therefore, they are attracted more strongly to that nucleus.

first ionisation energy

Energy needed to remove a single electron from the valence shell of an atom of an element in the gas state.

- Decreases down a group: as you move down the group, less energy is needed to remove an outer shell
electron
- Increases across a period: number of protons is increasing, causing an increase in electrostatic attraction
between the positive nucleus and the negative electrons = harder to remove electrons.

Reactivity with water

- Alkali metals are very reactive (group 1), alkaline earth metals (group 2) react less vigorously than group 1
- Group 3-6 are not very reactive with water, group 8 doesn’t react with water.

 Bonding

Electronegativity

Electronegativity: the ability of the atoms to attract the electrons of another atom in a bond. Non-metals are more
electronegative.

NOTE: Pauling state gives measure of electronegativity

Electronegativity can indicate the type of bond that atoms will form. The difference in electronegativity of two elements
decides whether the bond formed between them will be ionic or covalent.

- Ionic: difference in electronegativity is greater than 1.5

- Covalent: difference in electronegativity is lower than 1.5

Difference between ionic and covalent compounds

Chemical bonds are attractive forces caused by electrostatic attractions that arise between atoms or ions due to the
sharing and transfer of electrons, chemical bonds hold at atoms and ions together.

- Covalent bonds: when atoms share electrons, the shared e- orbits the nuclei of both atoms. Electrostatic
attraction between the nucleus and shared e- forms a covalent bond. Between two non-metals.
- ionic bonds: if an atom manages to take one or more e- from another atom, they both become charged
(forming + or – ions). The electrostatic attraction between the cations (+ ions) and anions (- ions) is an ionic
bond. Between non-metal and a metal.

Naming covalent compounds

e.g. CO2 = carbon dioxide (covalent)

Naming ionic compounds

- It is an empirical formula showing the simplest ratio of ions in the 3D lattice of the compound.

Polarity

- In a covalent compound, if the elements involved are the same, or the molecular substance is symmetrical,
there is equal sharing of electrons and the bond is non-polar
- if the bond is between two different elements that form a non-symmetrical substance, the electrons will be
attracted to the element of higher electronegativity making the bond polar

shapes of molecular substances

This will help to determine whether a substance is polar or not?

- first draw the Lewis dot diagram of the molecule

- then draw the shape of the molecular substance: think about how many pairs of electrons are repelling each
other?
- Decide which shape is formed

Straight bent triangular pyramid

Trigonal planar tetrahedron

Allotropy

Allotropes: same chemical element, different physical structure. Therefore, the same chemical properties, different
physical properties.

An example of an element which occurs as allotropes is carbon. Allotropes of carbon include:

Graphite

- Made up of layers of hexagons of carbon held

together by covalent bonds
- Each layer is only held together by weak forces of
attraction
- Graphite is soft because the layers of carbon atoms
can sheer off
- Very high melting point
- Good conductor of electric current and heat
- Not as shiny

Diamond
- Arranged in a tetrahedron shape made up of
carbon atoms held together by strong covalent
bonds which results in diamonds be very hard
- Brittle
- Very high melting point
- Poor conductor of electric current and heat
- High luster

Covalent network/lattice

- Between group 4 elements, silicon and carbon

- Atoms join together in a large lattice or network, all held together by the strong covalent bonds that extend
through the lattice.
- Breaking intramolecular forces

e.g. diamond, graphite

ionic network

- A large 3D lattice of positive and negative ions held tightly together by electrostatic forces (ionic bonds) which
extend throughout the whole crystal structure.

e.g. sodium chloride

metallic structure

- Each metal consists of positively charged ions (cations) arranged in a 3D lattice with delocalised valence
electrons moving throughout.
- The delocalised electrons aren’t held together by their own atomic orbital, instead they roam free within the
structure, being shared by many ions.

Intramolecular forces

Between the atoms within the molecule (covalent)

 - The bond between C – H is polar because C is more electromagnetic than H, hence the electrons are more
attracted to C and a dipole exists
- The bond between H – H is non-polar, as there is no difference in electronegativity

Intermolecular forces

Electrostatic forces between covalent molecules

There are 3 main types of intermolecular forces:

- Dispersion forces: occurs between polar and non-

polar covalent substances.
- Dipole-dipole forces: attraction between opposite
charge - polar substances of this additional
interaction between the molecules.
- Hydrogen bonds: occurs between the H of one
molecule and the F, O or N of another molecule

Properties of different chemical structures

Type Melting Point Electrical Conductivity Electrical Conductivity

Solid Liquid
Ionic Reasonably high Low High
Covalent network Extremely high Low Low
Covalent molecular Low Low Low
Metallic High High high

PRELIM EXAM QUESTION

Explain the following properties of 5 substances with reference to structure and bonding

Substance Melting Point Electrical Conductivity Electrical Conductivity

Solid Liquid
Sodium chloride 801 Low High
Silicon dioxide 1800 Low Low
Methane -45 Low Low
Tin High High High
Water 0 Low Low

Sodium Chloride

- Ionic compound
- Bonded together in a lattice by reasonably strong ionic bonds
 - When melted those bonds are broken = reasonably high melting point
- Don’t conduct electricity when solid as ions are fixed in lattice by ionic bonds, therefore the ions are not free to
move and carry electrons
- When molten, the ionic bonds are broken and ions are free to move around and carry e-

Silicon dioxide

- Covalent network
- Held together by strong covalent bonds, forming a lattice
- When melted, these strong bonds are broken (think: intramolecular bonds are harder to break) = extremely
high melting point of 1800 degrees Celsius
- atoms are fixed together by the strong bonds, so electrons aren’t free to move around = low electro
conductivity when solid
- when molten as the covalent bonds are still fixed, meaning the electrons aren’t free to move and conduct
electricity = Low electro conductivity when liquid
- no + or – ions present = no electricity

methane

- covalent molecular compound

- molecules are held together by weak dispersion forces between them = low melting point
- no + or – ions to carry electrons = can’t conduct electricity in solid or liquid form

tin

- metallic lattice of tin ions

- tin ions are interconnected by the strong bonds
- reasonably strong bonds of the metallic element require a high melting point
- there are + tin ions surrounded by delocalised electrons freely moving in the metallic structure = high electro
conductivity in solid and liquid form

water

- covalent molecular compound

- the molecules are bonded together by weak dispersion forces
- when melting the compound, these dispersion forces break = low melting point
- don’t conduct electricity when solid as they have a neutral charge
- when molten, the atoms are still neutral = low electro conductivity when liquid

Module 2: Introduction to Quantitative Chemistry

 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

In chemical reactions, bonds are broken, atoms are rearranged and new bonds are formed. A new substance is
created.

- In chemical reactions, atoms (mass) are not created or destroyed

- A method of measuring the volume of gas made during a chemical reaction is the downward displacement of
water (gas must not be soluble in water) , or using a syringe

Stoichiometry: Stoichiometry is the study of the quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Writing and Balancing Equations

Follow these steps;

 1. Write a word equation
2. Then write each substances formula
3. Balance the equation, only changing coefficients
4. Add the states – (s), (g), (aq), (l),

 The Mole Concept

1 mole of an element consists of a collection of 6.022 x 10^23 molecules of that element. It is its atomic mass in grams.

NOTE: be careful with gaseous elements such as oxygen. One mole of oxygen atoms is 6.022 x 10^23 oxygen atoms.
However, oxygen exists as diatomic molecules (O2) so one mole of oxygen gas consists of 6.022 x 10^23 oxygen
molecules and that is 12.044 x 10^23.

1 mole of a compound is its molar mass in grams

Calculating moles

Moles (n) = mass (m) (g)

Molar mass (mm)
n = m
mm

Ideal gas law equation

PV = nRT

P = pressure of gas (kPa)

V = volume of gas (L)
n = number of moles of the gas
R = ideal gas constant = 8.314 J mole^-1 K^-1
T = temperature (K)

Calculating using Avogadro’s constant

Moles (n) = no. of particles

6.022 x 10^23

NOTE: this refers to number of particles, so when calculating number of atoms, multiply the equation by the no.
e.g. for hydrogen: particles = moles x Avogadro’s number, but atoms = particles x 2

Empirical formula

Represents the simplest ratio of atoms or ions in a compound. In ionic compounds it shows the ratio of – ions to + ions
in the lattice.

NOTE: It does not tell you how many ions are present, only the ratio

- Ionic compounds can only have empirical formula – cannot have a molecular formula as they do not exist as
molecules
- Giant covalent structures (e.g. sand) can only have an empirical formula

Can be used to calculate percentage composition, or percentage composition can be used to determine its formula.
Calculating % comp from empirical formula

1. Calculate molar mass of the entire compound

e.g. mm of K2O = 2 x 39.2 + 16.0 = 94.2g
2. Calculate the % of each element in the molar mass
e.g. % K = 78.2/94.2 x 100 = 83.0%
% O = 16.0/94.2 x 100 = 17.0%

Calculating empirical formula from % comp

1. Find the ratio of atoms of the element by dividing the % of each element by its atomic mass
e.g. K = 83% and 83/39.1 = 2.12
O = 17% and 17/16.0 = 1.06
Ration of K: O in potassium oxide is 2.12: 1.06
2. The ratio of atoms must be in whole numbers, so divide by the smallest number
e.g. 2.12: 1.06 = 2.12/1.06: 1.06/1.06 = 2: 1
3. Calculate empirical formula from ratio
e.g. K2O1 = K2O

Molecular formula

Tells you the number of atoms in a molecule

- Covalent compounds can have both a molecular and empirical formula

NOTE: sometimes the molecular and empirical formulas are the same

Calculating molecular formulas

For covalent compounds you can use the empirical formula plus the molar mass to determine to molecular formula.

1. Find the ratio of atoms (must be whole numbers) by finding the empirical formula
2. Find the molar mass of the empirical formula
3. Find (or use given) molar mass of the compound
4. Decide on the difference in the molar mass of the empirical formula and the compound, and multiply the
empirical by whatever the empirical formula was multiplied by

e.g. analysis of an oxide of nitrogen shows its percentage composition, by mass, to be 30.43% nitrogen. 1.5 x 10^23
molecules of the oxide have a mass of 23.0g. Determine the molecular formula of the oxide of nitrogen.

n(N) : n(O)
30.43/14.01 : 100-30.43/16.00
2.172019986 : 4.348125 - divide both sides by the smallest number (2.172019986)
1:2
= N02

Molar mass of NO2 = 14.01 + 16.00 + 16.00

= 16.01

Molar mass of compound:

n = no. of particles
6.022 x 10^23
n = 1.5 x 10^23 molecules
6.022 x 10^23
n = 0.2490866822
 n = m/mm
0.25 = 23.0/ mm
mm = 92

So molecular formula = 2 x empirical formula

= N2O4

Limiting Reagent Reactions

Limiting reagent: if there is not enough of one reactant to use up all the other reaction, then the one that runs out is
called the limiting reagent as it limits the reaction.

The other reactant will be present in excess and some will be left over when the reaction stops

 Concentration and Molarity

Concentration of a solution: the amount of solute dissolved in an amount of solution (no the sam as volume of the
solvent).

There are two important ways of expressing concentrations of solutions:

- Mass per litre

- Moles per litre

Concentration in mass per litre = mass of solute in grams

Volume of solution in L
Measured in g L^-1

Molarity = moles of solute

Volume of solution in L
C = n/ V

Measured in mol L^-1

Dilutions

When you add water to a solution to dilute it, the solution still contains the same amount of dissolved solute, but it is in
a bigger volume of eater. We say the solution has become less concentrated or more solute.

number of moles before dilution = number of moles of sample after dilution

calculations involving dilutions

before diluting: n = C x V
after diluting: n = C x V

Therefore: CInitial x VInitial = CFinal x VFinal

NOTE: make sure to keep concentrations in moles/litre and volumes in litres

 Gas Laws

Ideal gas law equation

PV = nRT

P = pressure of gas (kPa)

V = volume of gas (L)
n = number of moles of the gas
R = ideal gas constant = 8.314 J mole^-1 K^-1
T = temperature (K)

Gay-Lussac’s Law

When gases react together to form other gases, the ratio between the volumes of reactant gases and their gaseous
products, when measured at the same temperature and pressure, can be expressed as a simple whole number ratio.

e.g. hydrogen (g) + oxygen (g) water (g)

100mL 50mL 100mL
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (g)

H2 : O2 : H20
2 : 1 : 2

Boyle’s Law

For a given mass of gas at a constant temperature, its volume is inversely proportionally to the pressure

Expressed mathematically:

- P α 1/V
- PV = a constant
- P1V1 = P2V2

Charles Law

The volume of a fixed amount of a gas, held at a constant pressure, is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature (K)

Expressed mathematically:

- VαT
- V/T = a constant
- V1/T1 = V2/T2

Absolute zero temperature = -273.15 degrees Celsius = 0 Kelvin

Molar volume – Avogadro’s Law

Number of moles in a volume of gas:

n = V/ Vm

- n = moles
- V = volume of a gas under sane conditions
- Vm = molar volume of a gas under same conditions

Molar volume (L mole^-1): volume occupied by one mole pf an ideal gas at a given temp and pressure

One mole will occupy:

 - 24.79L at a temp of 25 degrees Celsius and pressure of 100 kPa = SLC (standard laboratory conditions)
- 22.71 at a temp pf 0 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 100kPa = STP (standard temp and pressure)

Summary of conversions involving the mole

Module 3: Introduction to Quantitative Chemistry

Indicators of a chemical change:

- Change in colour
- Evolution of a gas – bubbles or a smell being released
- A precipitate is formed
- Change in temp (heat evolution or absorption)
- Disappearance of a reactant
- Change in pH
- Energy released – light, sound or heat emitted

Modelling the rearrangement of atoms to form new substances

e.g. decomposition of water by electrolysis

2H20 (l) 2H2 (g) + O2

In a chemical reaction, bonds are broken, atoms rearranged and new bonds are formed. A new substance is formed and
no matter is created or destroyed. As bonds are broken and new bonds are formed, there is an energy change.

Precipitation reaction

Caused when two soluble ionic compounds are mixed, forming an insoluble ionic compound (solid) known as the
precipitate, and a soluble salt.
Soluble + soluble insoluble + soluble
 e.g. AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

precipitate
Acid/base reaction

When an acid reacts with a base it produces a neutral solution (water and salt)
Acid + base salt + water

Basic = pH higher than 7

Acidic = pH lower than 7

e.g. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) H2O + NaCl (aq)

Combustion reaction

An exothermic chemical reaction in which oxygen is used and one or more oxides form. There are 2 types of
combustion reactions:

- Complete: where O2 is plentiful

- Incomplete: where O2 is limited

e.g. 2Mg (s) + 02 (g) 2MgO (s)

Decomposition reaction

Chemical reaction in which energy is used to break down a compound into simpler compounds or elements

e.g. ZnSO4 (s) ZnO (s) + SO3 (g)

Synthesis reaction

Chemical reaction in which simpler substances combine to produce more complex substances.

e.g. 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g) 2NaCl (s)

Acid carbonate reaction

A neutralisation reaction involving an acid and metal carbonate that produces a salt, water and CO2

Acid + carbonate (or hydrogen carbonate) CO2 + water + salt

e.g. 2HCl (aq) + Na2CO3 (s) CO2 (g) + H2O (l) + 2NaCl (aq)

Detoxifying foods – Aboriginal and TSI

Volatile toxins: ones that easily change state, from solid to gas, when heated

When Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders lived off the land, many of their food substances were not safe to be eaten
raw and had to be treated first. The following processes were used in food preparation:

- Physical processes: such as grating, grinding, pounding would release the toxins
- Solution: some could be dissolved in water and leached from the foods
- Heating: by roasting, baking or boiling – it increases the solubility of toxins
- Drying: some were placed in the sun, kilns or ovens to dry them out – help remove volatile toxins
- Fermentation: buried in grounds or swamps, changing the chemical composition
- Absorption: charcoal or clay could sometimes absorb toxins
- Changing the pH: can change the solubility of the toxins
e.g. black bean

- To destroy the toxins, the seeds are cracked and soaked in water to leach out toxins
- A physical process occurred by cracking the seeds, this makes the leaking of toxins easier
- It is then soaked, where the toxins (polar) are attracted to the water (polar) leaching out the toxins

Polar bonds are attracted to polar bonds

 Predicting Reactions of Metals

Activity series of metals

According to practical investigations and the periodic table:

Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc Decreasing activity
Copper
Tin

- Metals are increase in reactivity down the periodic table decrease across the PT

Metal reactivity in relation to ionisation energy, atomic radius and electronegativity

Ionisation energy

- Decreases down a group

- Increases across a period

Atomic radius

- Increase down a group

- Decrease across a period

Electronegativity

- Decreases down a group

- Increases across a period

As atoms of metals become bigger, their outer valence electrons are further from the nucleus, so they are held less
strongly and they lose their valence electrons more easily. Losing valence electrons more easily means their metals are
more reactive.

Redox reactions

Redox reaction: reactions of metals involving the transfer of electrons

- There are 2 processes involved in redox reactions: oxidation and reduction

- Redox refers to the whole reaction – oxidation and reduction reaction
- Oxidation and reaction take place at the same time, because when something loses e-, the e- go to another
atom/ion and that atom/ion is reduced

e.g. magnesium metal is placed in a solution of copper chloride. The magnesium dissolves and copper metal precipitates

write an overall equation for the reaction

Mg (s) + CuCl2 (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + Cu (s)
Write the net ionic equation
Mg (s) + Cu 2+ Cu- (aq) Mg 2+ Cu- (aq) + Cu (s)

Write half equations

Oxidation: Mg Mg 2+ + 2e-
Reduction: Cu 2+ + 2e- Cu

Identify the reductant and oxidant

The reductant is Mg as it reduced the Cu. The oxidant is Cu as it oxidises the Mg

Oxidation

Refers to the loss of electrons - when substance loses electrons = oxidised

e.g. Zn (s) Zn 2+ (aq) + 2e- = zinc atoms are oxidised

- substances that are oxidised are reducing agents (can be called reductants or reducers) because they cause
reduction when they give up e- to other substances.
- A good reducing agent = releases e- quickly

Reduction

Refers to the gain of electrons – when a substance gains e- = reduced

e.g. Ag + (aq) + e- Ag (s) = silver ions reduced

- substances that are reduced are oxidising agents (can be called an oxidant or oxidiser) because they cause
oxidation by removing e- from another substance.
- Good oxidising agents = easily remove e-

Oxidation state/ number

Oxidation state: (also called oxidation number) helps determine if a reaction is a redox reaction as it shows whether a
particular atom/ ion has been oxidised/ reduced

How to work out oxidation state:

- overall oxidation state of a neutral compound or uncombined element = 0

- for ions = equals charge of ion
- polyatomic ions = sum of all atoms oxidation states = charge of ion
- oxygen, when in compounds = -2
- hydrogen, in compounds = +1 with non-metals and -1 with metals

Increase in oxidation state = oxidation

Decrease in oxidation state = reduction
No change in oxidation state = no oxidation or reduction

e.g. Is Cr an oxidant or reductant in the following chemical reaction?

Cr2O7 2- Cr 3+

-2 = 2xCr + 7xO
= 2xCr + (-14)
12 = 2xCr
 6 = Cr

The oxidation sate of Cr in the reaction decreases from 6+ to 3+, therefore Cr is being reduced which makes it
an oxidant.

Galvanic half-cells

The salt bridge allows the movement of ions to achieve neutrality and complete circuit.

How to draw diagram:

1. draw metals in nitrate solution, unless stated otherwise

2. decide which is anode (gives e-) and which is cathode (gains e-)
3. make sure flow of electrons is correct (from anode – oxidation to cathode – reduction)
4. label anode, cathode, contents, beakers, voltmeter, salt bridge, flow of e-, oxidation (-) and reduction (+)

PRELIM EXAM QUESTION TYPE

The Galvanic cell was made by connecting a tin electrode in 1.0 mol L -1 tin nitrate solution and a copper electrode in
1.0 mol L -1 copper nitrate solution

Write the half equation for each cell then calculate the theoretical voltage for this galvanic cell.
Sn 2+ + 2e- Sn -0.14 V = oxidation
Cu 2+ + 2e- Cu + 0.34 V = reduction NOTES:
*standard reduction potentials on PT
Cu 2+ + 2e- Cu +0.34 V
Sn Sn 2+ + 2e- +0.14 V
*reduction is always the one with a higher
reduction potential
Cu 2+ + Sn Cu + Sn 2+ 0.48 V

Therefore, the theoretical voltage is 0.48 V *Cu is always 2+, unless it says otherwise

*when changing from reduction potential

equation to oxidation, voltage swaps from
– to + or + to –
 Rates of reactions

Collision theory

Chemical reactions occur when particles collide with enough energy to break away pre-existing bonds so that new ones
can form.
Activation energy: the minimum amount of energy required for particles to react. When this energy is reached, bonds
can split so that particles are free to make new bonds. If there isn’t enough energy they just bounce off each other = no
reaction.

- Very few particles actually have enough energy to react

Molecular orientation also has to be right for particles to react. They must be travelling at a sufficient speed and also
lined up correctly, or else they won’t react.

Reaction rates depend on

- Rate and fore of collisions

- How fast they’re travelling
- Nature of reactants
- State or phase of a substance

Influences on reaction rates

- Concentration of reactants
- Temp of surroundings
- Structure of reactant particles
- Pressure (if gases are involved)
- Presence/ absence of a catalyst