Module 1: Properties and Structure of Matter

Properties of Matter
Inquiry question: How do the properties of substances help us to classify and separate them?

Element – a substance that contains only one type of atom. Cannot be broken down into
anything simpler by chemical means. E.g. gold, oxygen
Compound – a substance made up of two or more different elements that are chemically
joined together in a fixed ratio determined by mass. e.g CO2
Mixture – A substance made up of two or more substances mixed together in no fixed ratio.
e.g. salt water, air

ELEMENT MIXTURE COMPOUND

Students:
● explore homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures through practical
investigations:
– using separation techniques based on physical properties (ACSCH026)

Heterogeneous – Has a variable composition throughout (usually mixtures)

Homogeneous – Has a consistent composition throughout (elements, compounds, and
sometimes mixtures)

Physical properties are those which can be measured without altering the composition of
the substance. They include melting and boiling points, density, hardness, malleability,
conductivity.
Chemical properties are those which describe the way a substance may react to form other
substances.
Pure substances (elements and compounds) are homogeneous and maintain invariable
chemical and physical properties.
A compound can have and usually does have vastly different properties to its component
elements.
Mixtures are a combination of pure substances, retaining the properties of the components. As
their composition can vary throughout the mixture (heterogeneous), the chemical and physical
properties vary.

Physical separation techniques include:

Technique Property difference used in separation
Filtration Particle Size
Sedimentation Density
Distillation Boiling point
Centrifugation Density
Decanting Density
Crystallisation Solubility

– calculating percentage composition by weight of component elements and/or

compounds (ACSCH007)

A 15.0 g sample of sterling silver contained 13.95 g of silver. The remainder was copper.
Calculate the percentage by weight of each metal in the sterling silver.

% silver = 13.95/15.0 × 100 = 93%w/w

% copper = (15.0 – 13.95)/15.0 × 100 = 7%w/w

● investigate the nomenclature of inorganic substances using International Union of Pure

and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) naming conventions
Naming compounds – will develop as we go

● classify the elements based on their properties and position in the periodic table through
their:
– physical properties
Properties that can be investigated without changing the substance into a new
substance(s)
Density, colour, hardness, melting point, electrical conductivity etc.
 – chemical properties
Properties that change the substance being investigated into a new substance(s)
(Reactivity with acids, oxygen, chlorine etc.)

Atomic structure and atomic mass

Inquiry question: Why are atoms of elements different from one another?

Students:
 investigate the basic structure of stable and unstable isotopes by examining:
– their position in the periodic table
– the distribution of electrons, protons and neutrons in the atom
– representation of the symbol, atomic number and mass number (nucleon number)

Atoms are made of protons, neutrons and electrons.

The atomic number of an element: the number of protons in a nucleus

The mass number of an element: the number of protons + neutrons in a nucleus

Isotopes: atoms of an element with the same atomic number but

different mass number

● model the atom’s discrete energy levels, including electronic configuration and spdf notation
(ACSCH017, ACSCH018, ACSCH020, ACSCH022)

● calculate the relative atomic mass from isotopic composition (ACSCH024)

Chlorine exists as two isotopes: chlorine-35 (with 18 neutrons) and
chlorine-37 (20 neutrons).

The abundance of each isotope is: chlorine-35 (75.77%) and

chlorine-37 (24.23%)

The relative atomic mass of chlorine = (75.77/100 x 35) + (24.23/100 x 37)

= 35.48

● investigate energy levels in atoms and ions through:

– collecting primary data from a flame test using different ionic solutions of metals
(ACSCH019)

A small piece of metal compound is taken on the end of a Nichrome wire and introduced into a
Bunsen flame. (Nichrome produces no colour of its own)
The flame emitting from the end of the wire will show a distinctive colour that is characteristic
of the metal in the compound.
By referring that flame colour to a reference, we can identify the element in that compound.

metal flame test colour

barium pale green

calcium yellow-red (brick)

copper green-blue

lithium red

sodium yellow

potassiu lilac
m

– examining spectral evidence for the Bohr model and introducing the Schrödinger model

http://chemistry.bd.psu.edu/jircitano/periodic4.html
(Emission Spectra of elements)

The Bohr model can be summarized by the following four principles:

1. Electrons occupy only certain orbits around the nucleus. Those orbits are stable
and are called "stationary" orbits.

2. Each orbit has an energy associated with it. The orbit nearest the nucleus has an
energy of E1, the next orbit E2, etc.

3. Energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from a lower orbit to a higher one
and energy is emitted when an electron falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit.

4. The energy and frequency of light emitted or absorbed can be calculated by

using the difference between the two orbital energies.

When his new model of the atom was applied to hydrogen, the simplest
atom with one electron orbiting the nucleus, it was found to give,
theoretically, exactly the same line spectrum as was known to exist
experimentally.

In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, took the Bohr atom model one
step further.
* Schrödinger used mathematical equations to describe the likelihood of finding an
electron in a certain position.
* This atomic model is known as the quantum mechanical model of the atom.
* Unlike the Bohr model, the quantum mechanical model does not define the exact path
of an electron, but rather, predicts the odds of the location of the electron.
* This model can be portrayed as a nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud.
* Where the cloud is most dense, the probability of finding the electron is greatest, and
conversely, the electron is less likely to be in a less dense area of the cloud.
* This model introduced the concept of sub-energy levels.

In the Bohr Model, the electron is treated as a particle in fixed orbits around the nucleus. In
the Quantum Mechanical Model, the electron is treated mathematically as a wave. The
electron has properties of both particles and waves.
The Bohr model was a one-dimensional model that used one quantum number to describe the
distribution of electrons in the atom. The only information that was important was the size of
the orbit, which was described by “n” the principle quantum number.
Schrodinger's model (Quantum Mechanical Model) allowed the electron to occupy three-
dimensional space. It therefore required three coordinates, or three quantum numbers, to
describe the distribution of electrons in the atom.
● investigate the properties of unstable isotopes using natural and human-made
radioisotopes as examples, including but not limited to:
– types of radiation
– types of balanced nuclear reactions

Radioactive elements emit particles from their nucleus as well as

electromagnetic radiation.

This is because
 they have unstable neutron to proton ratios (too many or too few neutrons).
 There are no stable isotopes for elements with atomic numbers greater
than 83 (bismuth).

A radioisotope is a radioactive isotope of an element.

Three types of radiation are:

alpha particles:
- have a positive charge (about 7000 times larger than a beta particle)

beta particles:
fast moving electrons produced during nuclear decay (negative)

gamma rays:
high energy electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus (no charge), (No mass)

Radiatio What is it Symbol Penetration Ionising Example

n in (stopped by) ability
equation
s
Alpha Helium 4 Several cm air High
 nucleus He Sheet of
2
paper
 Beta Electron 0 Several cm Al Mediu
 e m
-1

Gamma Energy  Several cm Low

 (no mass) Pb
Metres of
concrete

Other particles:
neutron proton electron

Electric fields affect the radiation:

e.g. What element is formed if Radon-222 undergoes alpha decay:

Step 1:

Step 2: What numbers are needed to balance this equation?

222 – 4 = 218 (mass no.)
86 – 2 = 84 (atomic no.)

What element is number 84? Find it on your Periodic Table. It’s Polonium

What element is formed if Cobalt-60 undergoes beta decay:

Step 1:

Step 2:

Nickel-60 is formed.
https://radioactiveisotopes.weebly.com/index.html

Effect of ionisation on tissue

One alpha particle can ionise 10,000 atoms. However, because it puts all its
energy into ionising others, it very quickly runs out of energy itself. Hence
alpha particles can't penetrate through much.

Why is ionizing radiation dangerous? When atoms in living cells become ionized one
of three things usually happen – the cell dies, the cell repairs itself, or the cell
mutates incorrectly and can become cancerous. Not all cells are affected by ionizing
radiation in the same way. The cells that reproduce the most and are the least
specialized are the most likely to be affected by ionizing radiation, for example
those in a forming fetus.1
Alpha particles are unable to penetrate the outer layer of dead skin cells, but
are capable, if an alpha emitting substance is ingested in food or air, of
causing serious cell damage.
Beta-particles, being less ionising than alpha-particles, can travel though
many centimetres or even metres or air and though millimetres of skin or
tissue. Sufficient intensity of beta-radiation can cause burns, rather like
severe sunburn. If beta-emitting radionuclides are inhaled or ingested,
they can also do damage to internal cells and organs.
Alpha particles are entire atomic nuclei (2 protons, 2 neutrons) - thus they are most
effective at knocking out electrons. ... Beta particles are fast electrons/positrons. From
the three, they have mediumionizing ability and medium penetration depth - aluminum
foil is enough to stop them. Gammaparticles are photons.
The 𝛼α particles are a helium nucleus and the most heavy of the three so hits more particles on its
travels so can’t travel as far but ionises more along its way.
The 𝛽β particles are highly energetic electrons that, being smaller than 𝛼α particles, can travel
further but ionise less.
The 𝛾γ particles are highly energetic photons that rarely interact with matter so can travel very far
and ionise the least.
Periodicity
Inquiry question: Are there patterns in the properties of elements?

Periodicity is the regular recurrence of events or properties

Students:
● demonstrate, explain and predict the relationships in the observable trends in the physical
and chemical properties of elements in periods and groups in the periodic table, including
but not limited to:
– state of matter at room temperature
– electronic configurations and atomic radii
– first ionisation energy and electronegativity
– reactivity with water

States of Matter: Melting points increase across group (peaking at Group 4 in first 3
periods and Group 6 Transitions thereafter).
After this they drop to a minimum at Noble gases.
Atomic radii decrease across group (increasing positive nuclear charge)
Increase down a group (increasing number of shells)

IONISATION ENERGY is defined as the energy required to

remove an electron from a gaseous atom.

E.g. for element M:

M(g)  M+(g) + e-

If an element has lower ionization energy, this means that only a small amount of
energy is required for the element to lose an electron. For metals, this makes
them more reactive. High ionization energy would mean that more energy is
required to remove an electron, so the element is less reactive.

The second Ionisation is:

M+(g)  M2+(g) + e-

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

is a measure of an

atom’s ability to attract electrons into its outer shell

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
INCREASE across group (increasing positive nuclear charge)
DECREASE down group (increasing shells – further from nucleus)

This is strongly related to the atomic radius and the reactivity of metals and non-
metals
 REACTIVITY of METALS

Generally, the reactivity of metals

increases down a group (outer electron(s) less tightly held) and

decreases across a period (outer electron(s) more tightly held).

REACTIVITY WITH WATER

ALL Group I METALS react with water – more vigorous as you move down group

Group II Metals – Beryllium no reaction, Magnesium with steam, others with

cold water
– react less vigorously than Group I Metals

As a general rule:

Metal + Water  Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen

e.g. 2Na (s) + 2 H2O (l)  2 NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)

e.g. Ca (s) + 2 H2O (l)  Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Bonding
Inquiry question: What binds atoms together in elements and compounds?

Students:
● investigate the role of electronegativity in determining the ionic or covalent nature of bonds
between atoms
● investigate the differences between ionic and covalent compounds through:
– using nomenclature, valency and chemical formulae (including Lewis dot diagrams)
(ACSCH029)
 – examining the spectrum of bonds between atoms with varying degrees of polarity with
respect to their constituent elements’ positions on the periodic table
– modelling the shapes of molecular substances (ACSCH056, ACSCH057)
● investigate elements that possess the physical property of allotropy
● investigate the different chemical structures of atoms and elements, including but not
limited to:
– ionic networks
– covalent networks (including diamond and silicon dioxide)
– covalent molecular
– metallic structure

BONDING METALLIC IONIC COVALENT COVALENT

TYPE MOLECULAR NETWORK
DESCRIPTIO Positive IONS Electrons Electrons SHARED NON-
N in a TRANSFERRED between NON- METAL(s)
sea of (forming ions) from METAL and ONLY
DELOCALISED METAL to NON- NON-METAL Electrons
ELECTRONS METAL (Insufficient SHARED
STRONG (Big difference in difference in EVERY atom
ELECTROSTATI ELECTRONEGATIVITY ELECTRONEGATIVIT COVALENTL
C ) Y to Y bonded
FORCES STRONG transfer electrons) To adjacent
ELECTROSTATIC WEAK atom
FORCES Intermolecular
Forces
M.P./B.P. Generally HIGH LOW HIGH
HIGH (strong electrostatic Weak forces Very
(strong forces – IONIC BETWEEN STRONG
electrostatic BONDS – must be molecules must be forces
forces – overcome) overcome) (COVALENT
METALLIC BONDS)
BONDS – must must be
be overcome) overcome
Electrical
Conductivity Good POOR (No POOR (No POOR (No
SOLID (Delocalised Delocalised electrons Delocalised Delocalised
electrons or MOBILE IONS electrons or MOBILE electrons or
present) present) IONS present) MOBILE
IONS
present)

POOR (No
 LIQUID Good Good (Mobile ions POOR (No Delocalised
(Delocalised present) Delocalised electrons or
electrons electrons or MOBILE MOBILE
present) IONS present) IONS
present)
AQUEOUS Not Applicable Good (Mobile ions POOR (No
present) Delocalised POOR (No
electrons or MOBILE Delocalised
IONS present) electrons or
MOBILE
IONS
present)

EXAMPLES Zn, Cu, Mg, Fe NaCl, MgO, Fe2O3 H2S, CH4, PCl3 Diamond,
SiO2

● explore the similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular and
intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces associated with each, in order to
explain the:
– physical properties of elements
– physical properties of compounds (ACSCH020, ACSCH055, ACSCH058)

MELTING POINT/ BOILING POINT

Which of the following would have the higher melting point:

(a) H2S or K2S
In order to melt H2S (a molecular compound) you must overcome weak intermolecular forces
In order to melt K2S you must overcome strong electrostatic forces called IONIC BONDS
Therefore, K2S would have the higher melting point.

(a) SiO2 or SiF4

In order to melt SiO2 (a covalent NETWORK compound) you must overcome strong electrostatic
forces called COVALENT BONDS.
In order to melt SiF4 (a molecular compound) you must overcome weak intermolecular forces
Therefore, SiO2 would have the higher melting point
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Which of the following would have the better ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

(a) NaCl(s) or NaCl(aq)

In order to conduct electricity a substance must contain either delocalized electrons or mobile
ions.
NaCl(s) has neither mobile ions nor delocalized electrons.
NaCl(aq) contains mobile ions.
Therefore, NaCl(aq) is the better electrical conductor.

(b) Ca(s) or P(s)

In order to conduct electricity a substance must contain either delocalized electrons or mobile
ions.
P(s) has neither mobile ions nor delocalized electrons.
Ca(s) is a metal and contains delocalized electrons.
Therefore, Ca(s) is the better electrical conductor.

ALLOTROPES: different structural forms of an element based on the different

spatial arrangements of the bonds between the atoms

The carbon atoms in DIAMOND are arranged

tetrahedrally in a strong three-dimensional, covalent
network lattice.

Therefore it has a very high sublimation point (3500 C)

and is very hard

All four valence electrons are involved in covalent

bonding, so there are no free electrons in the lattice. Thus, diamond is a non-
conductor of electricity.
 GRAPHITE is a soft, black solid. The carbon atoms are
arranged hexagonally in two-dimensional layers. The
layers are held together by weak dispersion forces.

Within each layer, each carbon atom is covalently bonded

to three other carbons in interlocking hexagonal rings.
These two-dimensional layers are very strong and rigid.

However, the graphite lattice is weak between its layers, so layers slip when
the lattice is subjected to shearing forces.

Within the hexagonal layers, only three of the four valence electrons are
involved in covalent bonding to other carbon atoms. The remaining electron
from each carbon atom is delocalised. Thus, graphite is a good electrical
conductor.

The FULLERENE family of carbon allotropes was

discovered in 1985. Fullerenes are ball- or rod-shaped
structures (nanotubes) formed by the bonding of a large
number of carbon atoms. Clusters of 60 atoms (C 60) are
the most abundant and named ‘bucky-balls’

They have three covalent bonds to each carbon atom,

which leaves a delocalized electron and the
possibility of electrical conductivity.

Nanotubes are closely related to fullerenes in structure. They exhibit:

 Strength
 Electrical conductivity
 Thermal conductivity
 Strong attractive forces to each other