CHEM1100 Notes-Modified

Al Musanna College of Technology
Department of Engineering
Diploma I
CHEM1100: Fundamentals of Chemistry
Semester II 2018-2019 1
Chapter-1
Matter
Anything which occupies space & has mass is called matter.
e.g.: air, water, earth, planets, satellites, plants, animals & man
Solids, Liquid, Gas

Classification of matter
Element, Compound, Mixtures
Solid Liquid Gas
Definite shape & definite Indefinite shape & definite Indefinite shape & volume
volume volume
Particles are closely packed Particles are not closely packed Particles are far away from
each other
Particles cannot move at all Particles can move here &there Particles can move randomly
slowly in all direction
e.g. –Copper, Iron, Sand, Chair e.g. – Vinegar, Oil, Water ,Petrol e.g. – Air, Carbon dioxide,
Oxygen
Temperatures:
 Boiling point is the temperature at which liquid becomes gas.
 Melting point is the temperature at which solid becomes liquid.
 Freezing point is the temperature at which liquid becomes solid.
 Sublimation is the process in which solid directly changes into gas on heating.
 Condensation is the process in which gas directly changes into liquid on cooling.
Element Compound Mixture
It consists of only one It consists of atoms of two or It consists of two or more different
kind of atom more different elements elements or compounds that are not
chemically combined together chemically combined together
They cannot be broken They can be broken down into They can be separated into its
down into simpler form a simpler element by chemical component by physical means
by either physical or means only
chemical means.
They can exist as either Properties of the compound Mixture have many properties of its
atoms(e.g. Argon) or are totally different from its component
molecules (e.g. component element.
nitrogen) e.g. H2 & O2 are gases whereas
compound formed by their
chemical combination ,H2O is
liquid
e.g.- Hydrogen, Helium, e.g.- Sodium Chloride, Air- gaseous mixture of O2, N2, H2O,CO2
Sodium Ammonia, Sugar, Milk - mixture of H2O, fat, protein
Carbohydrates, protein, fat Seawater - mixture of H2O & salt
Gold Ring- mixture of gold & Cu
Petrol – mixture of liquids
Petroleum- mixture of gas & liquid
Alloy - mixture of element
(Brass-Cu +Zn) & (Steel- Fe +C)
Symbols of Elements:
 Use first or second letter as abbreviation
 Capitalized the first letter only
Example: Carbon – C Chlorine – Cl Calcium – Ca
Nitrogen- N Bromine – Br Magnesium – Mg
 Some symbols are from the Latin names of the elements.
Example: Copper – Cu Cuprum
Sodium – Na Natrium
Potassium – K Kalium
Atom: is the smallest particle of an element having the chemical properties of the element
 Atom is made up of three subatomic particles: Proton, Neutron, Electron
 Protons &neutrons join together to form the nucleus, the central part of the atom
 Atom is electrically neutral because no. of proton & no. of electron are always equal
 Nucleus is positively charged because it has proton & neutron. As the Protons are
positively charged & neutrons have no charge on it.
Particle Location in atom Charge Mass Scientist name
Proton In the nucleus Positive charge 1 amu J.J. Thomson
Neutron In the nucleus No charge 1 amu James Chadwick
Electron Outside the nucleus Negative charge 1/2 amu J.J. Thomson
Nucleus Centre of the atom Positive charge Rutherford
Molecule: is formed when two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
 A molecule is the smallest particle of compound that has the chemical properties of
compound.
 Molecules are also electrically neutral
Molecule of an element: contains two or more atoms of the same element
H O Cl
H O Cl
Molecule of H2 Molecule of O2 Molecule of Cl2
Molecule of a compound: contains two or more atoms of the different elements
O O H H H
C O H N
Molecule of CO2 Molecule of H2O
H
Molecule of NH3
Ions: The electrically charged atom or molecules are known as ions.
It is charged because the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons in the
atom or molecule. An atom can acquire a positive charge or a negative charge depending on
whether the number of electrons in an atom is greater or less then the number of protons in
the atom.
Neutral Negatively Charged Positively Charged

No. of p+ = No. of e- No. of p+ < No. of e- No. of p+ > No. of e-
6 protons 5 protons 6 protons

6 neutrons 6 neutrons 6 neutrons
6 electrons 6 electrons 5 electrons
Atom Anion Cation
3. 1. 2.
Types of changes in the chemical reaction:
Physical Change Chemical Change

No new substance is formed One or more new substances are formed
Only change of state take place such as size, It produces light, heat, color change, smell or
shape sound
New substance has the same properties as New substance has the different properties
the old one as the old one
It is a reversible process It is a irreversible process
It is temporary process It is a permanent process
Example : Example :
1. Ice changes into water 1. Bread become toast
2. Aluminum foil cut into half 2. Milk becomes yoghurt
3. Clay is molded into a new shape 3. Boiling or frying the egg
4. A juice box in the freezer freezes 4. Burning of wood or petrol
5. Crushing a can 5. Digestion of food
6. Breaking a bottle 6. Paper become ashes
Atomic Number (Z): No. of protons or no. of electrons in an atom
Mass Number (A): The no. of protons & neutrons in an atom
A 23 Protons=11
Symbol Na Neutrons =12
Z 11 Electrons = 11
Exercise:
1. Name A,B,C,D and F in the following diagram showing change in its state
2. Define the terms solid, liquids and gases with example.

3. Differentiate between elements and compounds , compound and mixtures
4. Identify the following as an element, compound or mixture
5. Write the different temperatures at which states of matter changes

6. What is matter? Explain the classification of matter?
7. What is the difference between an atom and molecule?
8. Complete the following table:
Atomic Mass No. of No. of No. of Name of the
Number Number Neutrons Protons electron Element
9 10
16 32 Sulphur
24 12
2 1
9. Fill in the blanks:
10. The table gives numbers of electrons, protons, and neutrons in atoms or ions of a
number of elements.
(a) Which of the elements are neutral?
(b) Which are negatively charged?
(c) Which are positively charged?
(d) What are the chemical symbols for all the elements/ions? Write the symbols with
electrical charge on it.
Atoms or Ion of the

A B C D E F G
element
Number of electrons 5 10 18 28 36 5 9
Number of protons 5 7 19 30 35 5 9
Number of neutrons 5 7 20 36 46 6 10
11. Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixtures

Sodium, Sugar solution, Silver, Calcium carbonate, Tin, Silicon, Air, Soap, Salt, Platinum,
Blood, Carbon dioxide
12. Classify the following into physical and chemical changes?

(a) Growth of plant (f) Rusting of iron
(b) Melting of candle (g) Mixing of iron pieces and sand
(c) Cooking of food (h) Melting ice-cream
(d) Burning of candle (i) Tearing clothes
(e) Burning of gas (k) Breaking a stick
13. Define these terms: (a) element, (b) compound, (c) mixture, (d) matter, (e) atomic
number, (f) mass number
14. Describe the contributions of these scientists to our knowledge of atomic structure:
J. J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and James Chadwick.
15. Explain the meaning of each term in the symbol AZX
16. What is the mass number of an iron atom that has 28 neutrons?
17. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?
18. Give the number of protons and electrons in each of the following common ions:
Na+, Ca2+, Al3+, Fe2+, I-, S2-, N3-
19. Which of these symbols provides more information about the atom: 23Na or 11Na?
Explain.
20. Write the symbol for the atom that has an atomic number of 9 and mass number of 19.
How many electrons and how many neutrons does this atom have?
21. What is the symbol for an ion with 63 protons, 60 electrons and 88 neutrons? If an ion
contains 50 protons, 68 neutrons and 48 electrons. What is its symbol?
22. The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in an element are equal to 18, 16 and 16
respectively. Assign the proper symbol to the element.
23. Why the charge of the atoms is neutral?
24. Identify the subatomic particle that has the following characteristics:
(a) Has no charge
(b) Is located outside nucleus
(c) Has mass of 0.00055 amu
(d) Has the smallest mass
(e) Has a mass about the same as a neutron
(f) Carries a positive charge
(g) Is electrically neutral
(h) Is found in the nucleus
(i) Has a mass about the same as a proton’s
(j) Carries a negative charge
25. Which of the following statement is (are) true? For the false statement, correct them.
(a) All particle in the nucleus of an atom are charged
(b) The number of neutrons in a neutral atom is equal the number of electrons.
26. Would you expect each of the following atoms to gain or lose electrons when forming
ions? What ion is the most likely in each case? P, Ra, Br, In, Te, Rb
27. Identify the following as elements or compounds: NH3, N2, S8, NO, CO, CO2, H2, SO2
28. How many electrons, neutrons and protons are there in the following nuclei?
29. Write the complete symbol for the atom with the given atomic number and atomic mass
(a) Z = 17 , A = 35
(b) Z = 92 , A = 233
(c) Z = 4 , A = 9
30. Which of the following element have the same number of electrons?
Chapter -2
Atomic Structure
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in different energy levels or shells and each shell is
having a definite energy. The energy of the K shell is the least while those of L, M, N and O
shells increases. 1st energy level is K shell, 2nd energy level is L shell, 3rd energy level is M
shell, and 4th energy level is N shell and so on
Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is given by

2n2
Where n = shell number
 K energy level, n = 1 ,Maximum number of electrons in K energy level = 2n2 =2 x (1)2

=2
 L energy level ,n = 2,Maximum number of electrons in L energy level = 2n2 =2 x 22

=2x4
=8
 M energy level, n = 3,Maximum number of electrons in M energy level = 2n2 = 2 x (3) 2

=2x9
= 18
 N energy level, n = 4,Maximum number of electrons in N energy level = 2n2 = 2 x (4) 2

= 2 x 16
= 32
So on….
Rule: The outermost shell of an atom cannot fill more than 8 electrons, even if
it has a capacity to fill more electrons. This is called the Octet rule.
Electronic Arrangement of an Element: The arrangement of electrons in the various
shells/orbits/energy levels of an atom of the element is known as electronic configuration.
Electronic configuration (or Electron arrangement)

Element Symbol Atomic number
KLMN
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2,1
Beryllium Be 4 2,2
Boron B 5 2,3
Carbon C 6 2,4
Nitrogen N 7 2,5
Oxygen O 8 2,6
Fluorine F 9 2,7
Neon Ne 10 2,8
Sodium Na 11 2,8,1
Magnesium Mg 12 2,8,2
Aluminum Al 13 2,8,3
Silicon Si 14 2,8,4
Phosphorus P 15 2,8,5
Sulphur S 16 2,8,6
Chlorine Cl 17 2,8,7
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8
Potassium K 19 2,8,8,1
Calcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2
Diagrammatic Representation of Atomic Structure:
Magnesium-12 Oxygen-8
Quantum numbers:
1. Principal quantum number: determines the main energy level or shell to which an
electron belongs. It is denoted by letter “n”
For example:
1s2
The number "1" refers to the principle quantum number "n". It tells us that the
electrons of helium occupy the first energy level of the atom.
When n=1, the energy level is nearest to the nucleus and as the value of n increases the
distance of the shell from the nucleus does on increasing.
2. Angular quantum number: determines the subshells to which the electrons belongs
and also the three dimensional shape of the orbital. It is denoted by the letter “l”
For a given value of n, l can have n values ranging from 0 to (n – 1), that is, for a given
value of n, the possible values of l are: l= 0, 1, 2….. (n – 1)
For example, when n=1, value of l is only 0. For n=2, the possible value of l can be 0 and
1. For n=3, the possible l values are 0, 1 and 2
Each shell consists of one or more subshells or sublevels. The number of subshells in
a principal shell is equal to the value of n. for example in the first shell (n=1), there is
only one sub-shell which corresponds to l=0. There are two sub-shells (l=0, 1) in the
second shell (n=2), three (l=0, 1, 2) in third shell (n=3) and so on. Each sub-shell is
assigned an angular quantum number (l). Sub-shells corresponding to different values of
l are represented by the following symbols.
Value for l: 0 1 2 3 4 5…………...
Sub- shell: s p d f g h……………
No. of orbitals: 1 3 5 7 9 11…………
Shapes of the orbital:
p- Orbital
Shape name: Dumbbell
px py pz
s- Orbital
X
Shape name: Spherical
Z
3. Magnetic quantum number: determines the total no. of orbitals present in any
subshells. It is denoted by letter “m”
It can be calculated by m=2l + 1
m = -l, - (l-1) … 0 … (l-1), l
E.g. if l = 0; m = 0
if l = 1; m = -1, 0, +1
if l = 2; m = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
Maximum number of
Sublevel No. of Orbitals
electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
4. Spin quantum number: determines the direction of the electron. Spin can be clockwise
or anticlockwise. Spin quantum number can have values of +1/2 or -1/2 (arrow up or
arrow down)
Rules of writing the Electronic Configuration:
1. Aufbau’s principle states that electrons always fill orbital of lower energy first.
Order of Filling Sublevels with Electrons
The order for filling in the sublevels ; 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p,
7s, 5f, 6d,7p.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle states no two electrons within a particular atom can have
identical quantum numbers.
An orbital can hold 0, 1, or 2 electrons only, and if there are two electrons in the orbital,
they must have opposite (paired) spins.
When we draw electrons, we use up and down arrows. So, if an electron is paired up in a
box, one arrow is up and the second must be down.
Incorrect; electrons must spin in opposite directions
Correct; the electrons have opposite spins
3. Hund's rule states that when more than one orbital of equal energies are available then
the electrons will first occupy these orbital separately with parallel spins. The pairing of
electrons will start only after all the orbital of a given sub level are singly occupied.
Example: 3 electrons that are filled into the three 'p' orbital can be represented in two
different ways:
Rules of writing the electronic configuration:
1. To indicate the electron filling of a particular orbital, the principal quantum number (n) of
the orbital is written before the orbital symbol while the number of electrons in the
orbital is written after the orbital symbol near its head. Thus 1s2 represents 2 electrons
in the s orbital of principal quantum number 1.
Number of electrons
Principal quantum number

1s2
Orbitals
Sometimes electronic configurations are denoted in a different manner. Each orbital is
represented by a square or circle and the electrons present in it are represented by
arrows. One arrow in the box indicate the presence of two electrons having opposite
spins.
2. The various orbitals are written in order of increasing energies.
The electronic configurations of some elements to illustrate the above rules

(i) Hydrogen (Z=1), the only electron in the atom occupies the 1s orbital. Therefore, the
electronic configuration of H is
1s1 or
1s
(ii) Helium (Z=2), both electrons can go into 1s orbital so that the electronic
configuration of He is
1s2 or
1s
(iii) Lithium (Z=3) has 3 electrons. Since 1s cannot have more than 2 electrons, we put 2
electrons in 1s orbital and the third one in the next available orbital, namely 2s,
giving configuration:
1s2 2s1 or
1s 2s
(iv) Beryllium (Z=4), hence the fourth electron also goes to the 2s orbital giving the
configuration:
1s2 2s2 or
1s 2s
(v) Boron (Z=5), since not more than 4 electrons can be accommodated in the 1s and 2s
orbitals, the fifth is put in one of the three 2p orbital, say 2px. Thus the configuration
is
1s2 2s2 2p1 or
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
(vi) Carbon (Z=6), the sixth electron will also go to 2p orbital. But according to Hund’s
rule it must go to 2py, hence the electronic configuration is:
1s2 2s2 2p2 or
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
(vii) Applying the same rules the configurations of the next four elements would be
N (Z=7) 1s2 2s2 2p3 or
O (Z=8) 1s2 2s2 2p4 or
F (Z=9) 1s2 2s2 2p5 or
Ne (Z=10) 1s2 2s2 2p6 or

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
(viii) Sodium (Z=11), each of the three 2p orbitals gets completed. Therefore, the next electron
goes to the next available orbital i.e. 3s resulting in the configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 or
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s
(ix) Similarly, the configuration of the seven elements would be
Mg (Z= 12) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Al (Z= 13) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Si (Z= 14) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
P (Z= 15) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
S (Z= 16) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Cl (Z= 17) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Ar (Z= 18) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
(x) In the same way, following the order of increasing energies and other rules, the
configuration of potassium and calcium are given below:
K (Z= 19) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

Ca (Z= 20) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
In case of K and Ca, 3p orbital is followed by 4s and not 3d since 4s has lower energy
as compared with 3d according to order of increasing energies.
As we move from Calcium to Scandium (Z=21), the next available orbital to 4s is 3d
and not 4p according to order of increasing energies. The progressive filling of 3d
orbitals after 4s is continued in the next nine elements following scandium till zinc
(Z=30) where the 3d orbitals are completely filled. In the next element, gallium
(Z=31) the 4p orbitals start getting filled and so on.
Sc (Z= 21) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

Ti (Z= 22) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2
V (Z= 23) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
Cr (Z= 24) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4
Mn (Z= 25) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
Fe (Z= 26) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Co (Z= 27) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7
Ni (Z= 28) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8
Cu (Z= 29) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
Zn (Z= 30) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
Exception looking configurations:

The electronic configuration of certain elements such as chromium (Z= 24), Copper (Z= 29),
Molybdenum (Z=42) and Silver (Z=47) do not follow the general rules
The electronic configurations of these elements are expected to be as follows:
Cr (Z=24) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4
Cu (Z= 29) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9
Mo (Z= 42) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d4
Ag (Z= 47) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d9
But the actual configurations are:
Cr (Z=24) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
Cu (Z= 29) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
Mo (Z= 42) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1 4d5
Ag (Z= 47) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1 4d10
In each case one of the electrons expected to go to 4s orbital has gone to 3d orbital. In this
way all the 3d orbitals have got exactly half filled in chromium and molybdenum and
completely filled in copper and silver.
The reason is that electronic configurations in which orbitals of the same sub shell are
exactly half filled or completely filled (p3, p6, d5, d10, f7, f14) have lower energy or in other
words, extra stability
Electronic Configurations of Ions:

• When we write the electron configuration of a positive ion, we remove one electron
for each positive charge:
Na → Na+
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 → 1s2 2s2 2p6
• When we write the electron configuration of a negative ion, we add one electron for
each negative charge:
O → O2-
1s2 2s2 2p4 → 1s2 2s2 2p6
Exercise:
1. State Hund’s rule and its importance in filling the orbitals in various energy levels
taking atomic number 17 as an example.
2. State Aufbau’s principle?
3. What are the different atomic orbitals and explain the maximum number of electrons
hold by each orbital?
4. Draw and name the shapes of s and p orbitals?
5. How many electrons can be placed in the shell with n=2 and n=3
6. Write the electronic configuration(s, p, d, f), electronic arrangement(K, L, M, N) and
identify the elements whose atomic number are 6,16,26,36,56
OR
Write the electronic configuration(s, p, d, f), electronic arrangement (K, L, M, N) for the
following ions: Zr3+and Zr4+, Cd2+, Ti2+ and Ti4+, Cu+ and Cu2+, V2+ and V3+
7. Write the electronic configuration of chromium (Z=24) and determine the following:
(a) Number of half –filled orbitals electron
(b) Number of electrons having l= 1
(c) Quantum number of 19th electron.
8. Give the electronic configuration of Ni2+ and find the unpaired electrons in it.
9. What are the possible values of n and l for the unpaired electron in the atom of an
element whose atomic no. is 9?
10. State Pauli’s Exclusion principle with example.
11. How many electrons in sulphur (Z= 16) have n + l=3?
12. Write the possible values of m for an electron with l=1
13. Which quantum number specifies the shape of an orbital?
OR
What does the angular quantum number tells us?
14. Why there is no 2d and 3f orbital?

15. How many subshells are contained in M shell? What they are known as?
16. What is the total number of orbitals in the principal quantum number n = 3?
17. For the principal quantum number, n=5, determine the number of allowed subshell
and give the designation of each.
18. Which quantum number determines the energy associated with an orbital in an atom?
19. What are quantum numbers? How are these numbers related to one another?
20. In the ground state of cadmium, Cd
(a) How many electrons occupy atomic orbitals with n=3?
(b) How many electrons occupy d atomic orbitals?
(c) How many electrons occupy p atomic orbitals?
21. Draw atomic orbital diagrams representing the electronic configuration for each of the
following elements: Na, Co, Kr. How many unpaired electrons are present in each
element?
OR
For elements 1-36, there are two exceptions to the filling order as predicted from the
periodic table. Draw the atomic orbital diagrams for the two exceptions and indicate
how many unpaired electrons are present.
OR
Which of elements 1-36 have two unpaired electrons in the ground state?
OR
How many unpaired electrons are present in each of the following in the ground state:
O, O+, O-, Zr, S, F, and Ar?
22. What are the main rules for filling of orbitals? Explain your answer with suitable
example?
23. Arrange the following orbitals in order of increasing energy for an electron in an atom:
1s, 3s, 5s, 2p, 4p, 5p, 3d, 4d and 4f
24. Write the possible values of n, l and m for an electron in 3p orbital?
OR
What is the orbital value having n=4 and l=3?
OR
Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum numbers
(a) n = 2, l = 1 (c) n = 4, l = 0
(b) n = 5, l = 3 (d) n = 3, l = 2
25. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not allowed in the atom? For the
sets of quantum number that are incorrect, state what is wrong in each set.
(a) n = 3, l = 2 (e) n = 3, l = 3
(b) n = 4, l = 3 (f) n = 4, l = 1
(c) n = 0, l = 0 (g) n = 2, l = 1
(d) n = 2, l = -2 (h) n = 5, l = -1
26. What are the atomic no. of elements whose outermost electrons are represented by
(a) 3s1 (b) 2p3 (c) 3p5
27. An atom of an element contains 29 electrons and 35 neutrons. Calculate

(i) The number of protons
(ii) The electronic configuration of the element
Chapter -3
Periodic Table
More than half of the elements known today were discovered between 1800 and 1900.
During this period, chemists noted that many elements show very strong similarities to one
another. Recognition of periodic regularities in physical and chemical behavior and the need
to organize the large volume of available information about the structure and properties of
elemental substances led to the development of the periodic table.
The main credit for classifying elements goes to Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian
chemist. He was the most important contributor to the early development of a periodic table
of elements where in the elements were arranged on the basis of their fundamental
property, the atomic mass, and also on the similarity of the chemical properties.
Arrangement of elements:
Elements are arranged in the Periodic Table according to the Modern periodic law given by
Moseley, in order of proton numbers (Atomic Number), which increases from left to right
across the Periodic Table
Classification of periodic table on the basis of

 Metals
 Shiny solids
 Shaped into wires (ductile) or hammered into a flat sheet (malleable)
 Good conductor of heat and electricity
 Melts at higher temperatures
 Solids at room temperature except mercury is liquid
 Nonmetals
 Not shiny
 Not ductile or malleable
 Poor conductor of heat and electricity
 Melts at low temperatures
 Metalloids
 Have the properties of both metal and nonmetal
 Better conductors of heat & electricity than nonmetals but not as good as metals
 Used as semiconductors because they can function as conductors or insulators
 B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po and At
Periods in the Periodic Table
 A horizontal row in the Periodic Table is called a period
 Each row is counted from the top of the table as Period 1 to Period 7
 Period 1 contains only the elements H and He

Period 2 contains 8 elements: Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne
Period 3 contains 8 elements beginning with Na and ending with Ar
Period 4 contains 18 elements, which begins with K and ending with Kr
Period 5 contains 18 elements beginning with Rb and ending with Xe
Period 6 contains 32 elements begins with Cs and ended with Rn
Period 7 as of today contains the 29 remaining elements, although it could go upto 32
 The number of electron shells of an element will determine its Period in the
Periodic Table
Groups in the Periodic Table
 A vertical column on the Periodic Table is called a group.
 The elements in the first two columns on the left and the last six columns on the
right of the periodic table are called representative elements.
 Given a group numbers 1A - 8A but on some periodic table group numbers may
be written with Roman numerals IA – VIIIA.
 Centre of the periodic table is known as transition metals, designated with letter
“B”
 The number of outer electrons of an element will determines its Group in the
Periodic Table
 Elements in the same Group:

 Have similar chemical and physical properties
 Have the same number of outer electrons.
 Usually form ions with same charge.
Group 1 : X+ (Example: Na+, Li+)
Group 2 : X2+ (Example: Ca2+, Mg2+)
Group 6 : X2- (Example: O2-, S2-)
Group 7 : X- (Example: I-, Cl-)
Classification of Groups
 Group I A - ALKALI METALS
 Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
 They are very reactive, as they have only one electron in their outer shell. Therefore,
they are ready to lose that one electron
 The valence electron configuration is ns1, where n is the period number
 Last orbital of the alkali metals is s
 Group II A - ALKALINE EARTH METALS

 Be, Mg, Ca Sr, Ba, Ra
 Two electrons in the outermost shell which make reactive but not as Group IA
 The valence electron configuration is ns2, where n is the period number
 Last orbital of the alkaline earth metals is s
 Group B - Transition Metals

 Copper, tin, zinc, iron, nickel, gold, and silver
 Variable valency like +2,+3, +4
 The valence electron configuration is ns1 to 2 (n-1)d1to10, where n is the period
number
 Last orbital of the transition group is d
 Group VII A – HALOGENS

 F, Cl, Br, I, At
 They are non-metals.
 Halogen atoms only need to gain 1 electron to fill their outermost energy level.
 They have 7 valence electrons, that’s why they are the most active non-metals.
 The valence electron configuration is ns2 np5, where n is the period number
 Last orbital of the halogen group is p
 Exist naturally as diatomic molecules.
Element Molecular formula Physical State at R.T
Fluorine F2 Gas
Chlorine Cl2 Gas
Bromine Br2 Liquid
Iodine I2 Solid
Astatine At2 Solid
 Group VIII A - NOBLE GASES
 Also known as INERT GASES or ZERO GROUP or RARE GASES
 He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
 Except for helium ,outermost shell consist of 8 valence electron
 Unreactive because their outermost energy level is full.
 The valence electron configuration is ns2 np6 , where n is the period number
 Last orbital of the noble gases is p
 Bottom rows - RARE EARTH METALS

 Present at the bottom of the periodic table
 The thirty rare earth elements are composed of the lanthanide and actinide series.
 The upper row is known as Lanthanides series and down row is known as actinide
series
 They are called inner transition element
 Last orbital of the rare earth metal is f
Exercise:
1. Without reference to the Periodic Table, predict the Period & Group of the following
elements : Ca, Rb , S , Xe , Ga ,Pb
2. How the elements are arranged in the periodic table?
3. Why the elements in group will have the same properties?
4. How many groups and periods are present in the periodic table?
5. Which metal group elements are highly reactive?
6. The two most reactive families of elements are the halogens and the alkali metals. How
do they differ in their reactivities?
7. Use the second member of each group from Group 1A to Group 7A to show that the
number of valence electrons on an atom of the element is the same as its group number.
8. Why the zero group elements are called as inert gases?
Or
Why the zero group elements are unreactive?
Or
Which group elements are unreactive?
Or
Helium is an unreactive gas and neon is a gas of extremely low reactivity. What do their
atoms have in common?
9. Write the electronic configuration and identify the periodic group for the elements
whose atomic number are 6,16,26,36,56
10. Explain in terms of electronic configuration, why halogens have similar chemical
properties.
11. State whether each set represents elements in a group, a period or neither
(a) F, Cl, Br, I (b) Na, Al, P (c) K, Al, O
12. In terms of period and group where would you locate the element with Z =34?
13. Give the symbol of the element described by the following:

(a) Group 4A, Period 2 (e) A noble gas in Period 1
(b) An alkaline earth metal in Period 2 (f) Group 15, Period 3
(c) A noble gas in Period 4 (g) A halogen in Period 5
(d) An alkali metal in Period 3 (h) Group 2, Period 4
14. Identify the group or period number described by each of the following statements:
(a) Contains the elements C, N and O (e) Begins with helium
(b) The alkali metals (f) Ends with neon
(c) Contains Na, K and Rb (g) The row that begins with Li
(d) The noble gases
15. For each of the following sets of elements, label each as either noble gases, halogens,
alkali metals, alkaline earth metals or transition metals
(a) Ti, Fe, Ag (c) Ne, Kr, Xe (e) Li, K, Rb
(b) Mg, Sr, Ba (d) F, Br, I
16. Which of the statements are true? For the false statement, correct them.
(a) Most of the known elements are metals.
(b) Element 118 should be nonmetal
(c) Hydrogen has mostly metallic properties
(d) A family of elements is also known as a period of elements
17. Lists the symbols of the elements in each of the following groups.
(a) Alkali metals (c) Noble gases
(b) Halogens (d)Alkaline earth metals
18. Write the atomic number of the element present in the third period and seventh group
of the periodic table.
19. What are groups and periods in the periodic table?
20. Use the periodic table to answer the following questions.
(a) Identify an element with five electrons in the outer subshell.
(b) Identify an element that would tend to lose two electrons.
(c) Identify an element that would tend to gain two electrons.
(d) Identify the group having non-metal, solid, liquid as well as gas at the room
temperature.
21. Assign the position of the element in the periodic table, having outer electronic
configuration
(a) ns2 np4 for n=3 (c) (n-1)d2ns2 for n=4
(b) (n-2) f 7 (n-1)d1ns2 for n=6
22. In the periodic table, how many elements are found in

(a) Group II (c) The nickel group
(b) The oxygen group (d) Group VIII
(c) In the halogen group (e) In the alkali group
23. Give two differences between a metal and a nonmetal.
24. Write the names and symbols for four elements in each of these categories:
(a) Nonmetal (b) Metal (c) Metalloid
25. Without consulting a periodic table, name each of the lettered groups in the following
table. Provide two examples from each group.
26. Group these elements in pairs that you would expect to show similar chemical
properties: K, F, P, Na, Cl, and N.
27. Name :
(a) Three elements that have a single electron in their outermost shells
(b) Two elements that have two electrons in their outermost shells
(c) Three elements with filled outermost shells
28. Lithium, sodium, potassium are all metals that react with water to liberate hydrogen gas.
Is there any similarity in the atoms of these elements?
29. Identify each of the following elements:

(a) A member of the same family as oxygen who contains 54 electrons
(b) A member of the alkali metal family who contains 36 electrons
(c) A noble gas with 18 protons in the nucleus
(d) A halogen with 85 protons and 85 electrons
30. Element X forms a chloride with formula XCl2, which is solid with a high melting point. X
would most likely be in the same group of the periodic tables as
(a) Na (b) Mg (c) Al (d) Si
31. Which element has

(a) Two shells, both of which are completely filled with electrons?
(b) The electronic configuration 2, 8, 2?
(c) A total of three shells, with four electrons in its valence shell?
(d) Twice as many electrons in its second shell as in its first shell?
32. Which of the following ions have the noble gas electron configurations?
(a) Fe2+, Fe3+, Sc3+, Co3+
(b) Te2-, Cr3+
(c) Pu4+, Ce4+, Ti4+
(d) Ba2+, Pt2+, Mn2+
33. An atom has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7

(a) What is the atomic number of the element?
(b) To which of the following elements would it be chemically similar? Atomic numbers
N(7), F(9), P(15), Ar(18)
34. The position of three elements A, B, C in the periodic table are shown below:
Group 16 Group 17
B C
(a) State whether A is a metal or nonmetal

(b) State whether c is more reactive or less reactive than A
(c) Which type of ion, cation or anion, will be formed by element A?
Chapter-4
Chemical Equations
Valency defined as the number of Hydrogen atoms that an element can combine with.
Example:
 Lithium, Sodium and Potassium have a valency of 1 because they combine with one
Hydrogen atom.
 Beryllium, Magnesium and Calcium all have a valency of 2: they combine with two
Hydrogen atoms.
Note that the valences of all these atoms are equal to the number of outer electrons that
these elements have.
 Boron and Aluminum combine with three Hydrogen atoms - their valences are 3:
they have three outer electrons.
 Carbon and Silicon combine with four Hydrogen atoms. The valency of these
elements is 4
What about Nitrogen and Phosphorus?

They have five outer electrons. But normally they only combine with three Hydrogen atoms.
Their valences are 3. These atoms are three electrons short of a full shell
Or
Valency is the combining capacity of an atom. It is equal to the number of electrons
the atom loses, or gains or shares when it combines with one or more atoms.
Depending on whether the atom loses, gains or shares electrons, the valency may be
positive or negative or neutral respectively.
Example: Valency of sodium is + 1, because it can lose one electron. It is represented as Na+
Valency of chlorine is – 1, because it accepts 1 electron. It is represented as Cl-
If two or more atoms combine by sharing electrons i.e., not losing or gaining electrons, then
the valency numbers are neither positive nor negative.
Example: In carbon dioxide, carbon and oxygen atoms, do not, lose or gain electrons, and
their valency are 4 and 2 respectively.
Chemical Formula of a compound is a symbolic representation of its composition.
 The rules writing a chemical formula are as follows:
 The valency or charges on the ion must balance.

 When a compound consists of a metal and a non-metal, the name or symbol of the
metal is written first & then the nonmetal as -ide
Example: calcium oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron sulphide (FeS), copper oxide
(CuO) etc., where oxygen, chlorine, sulphur are non-metals and are written on the right,
whereas calcium, sodium, iron and copper are metals, and are written on the left.
 When a compound consists of two nonmetals: Name each element & End the last element
in -ide
Add prefixes to show more than 1 atom

Prefixes Atom
Mono 1
Di 2
Tri 3
Tetra 4
Penta 5
Hexa 6
Example:
CO : carbon monoxide CO2 : carbon dioxide
PCl3: phosphorus trichloride CCl4 : carbon tetrachloride
 In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket before
writing the number to indicate the ratio.
 Chemical formula with a Transition Metal

 transition metal is an element with an atomic number of 21 to 30, 39 to 48 or 57 to 80
 Have to specify the charge of the transition metal ion by using a Roman numeral
Roman Numerals Charge

I +1
II +2
III +3
IV +4
V +5
Because transition metals can assume more than one charge, we have to specify
which one is involved.
Example: Manganese (II) oxide contains Mn+2 and O-2
Symbol Mn O
Valency +2 -2
FORMULAE OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS: While writing the chemical formulae for
compounds, write the constituent elements and their valency as shown below. Then we
must crossover the valency of the combining atoms.
Hydrogen chloride HCl Magnesium chloride MgCl2
Symbol H Cl Symbol Mg Cl
Valency +1 -1 Valency +2 -1
Calcium oxide CaO Calcium hydroxide Ca (OH) 2

Symbol Ca O Symbol Ca OH
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
Symbol Na CO3 Symbol NH4 SO4
Molecular mass of a compound

 The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a compound.
 It can be determine by adding the individual masses of each atom in the compound.
 It is calculated in amu (atomic mass unit)
Molecular Mass of Carbon monoxide

• The formula for carbon monoxide is composed of one atom of carbon and one atom
of oxygen
• Atomic mass of C = 12.01 (from Periodic Table)
Atomic mass of O = 16.00 (from Periodic Table)
• Molecular Mass for carbon monoxide = atomic mass carbon + atomic mass oxygen
= 12.01 + 16.00
= 28.01amu
Chemical Reaction & Equation
Chemical reaction occurs whenever bonds are broken and new bonds are formed between
different atoms.
A process in which at least one new substance is produced as a result of chemical change
Indicators of the chemical reaction:
1. Heat, light, sound (Energy released or absorbed)
2. Bubbles, fizzes (a new gas is created)
In the chemical equation the reactant on the left hand side &product on the right hand side;
separated by an arrow.
Some atoms cannot stand to be alone. Therefore, they often found in nature paired with
them self - Diatomic atoms. There are 7 diatomic atoms- H, N, O, Cl, F, I, Br
Writing Chemical Equation: 2 ways

 Word Equation: E.g. Aluminum combines with oxygen to form aluminum oxide
 Formula Equation: E.g. Al+3 + O2- → Al2O3
Balancing the chemical equation:

1. Write the symbol of the element present in the equation.
2. Balance the equation in such a way that each side of the equation has the same
number of atom of each element.
3. When balancing the chemical equation, use coefficient, small whole number placed at
the front of chemical formula. Never change the subscript
4. Indicate the state of matter- Solid(s), Liquid (l), Gas(g), Aqueous(aq)
Types of Chemical Reactions:
1. Synthesis/Combination: When two or more substances (elements or compound or

mixture of both) combine to form a single product.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
N2 + 3 H2 → 2NH3
4Fe + 3 O2 → 2Fe2O3
Mg + Br2 → MgBr2
2. Decomposition: A decomposition reaction is the opposite of a synthesis reaction. A

compound is break down into two or more simpler substances (2 elements or 2
compounds or mixture of element or compound) or 1 reactant is forming two or
more products
2 H2O → 2 H2 + O2
2HgO → 2Hg + O2
2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3 O2
3. Single Replacement: One element takes the places of another element in a compound.
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
Mg + Zn (NO3)2 → Mg (NO3)2 + Zn
4. Double Replacement: The anions and cations of two different molecules switch places,
forming two entirely different compounds.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3

ZnS + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2S
Pb (NO3)2 + 2KI → PbI2 + 2KNO3
Exercise:
1. Determine the formula and name of compounds which might be formed by the following
pairs of elements:
(a) Magnesium and chlorine (f) Potassium and nitrogen
(b) Lithium and nitrogen (g) Aluminum and iodine
(c) Sodium and bromine (h) Potassium and sulphur
(d) Aluminum and sulphur (i) Lithium and oxygen
(e) Magnesium and nitrogen
2. Write the chemical formula and also calculate the molecular mass of the following
compound: Aluminum sulphate , Magnesium carbonate , Ammonium phosphate,
Manganese (IV) oxide, Lead (II) chloride, Copper (I) chloride, Sulphur trioxide, Mercury
(II) oxide, Iron (III) oxide, Potassium sulfide, Magnesium phosphate, Boron trichloride,
Strontium chlorite, Mercury(II) oxide, Cobalt(II) chloride, Magnesium chloride, Copper
nitrate, Gallium iodide, Manganese(II) hydroxide, Dioxygen difluoride, Disulphur
dichloride, Carbon tetraiodide, Selenium tetra bromide, Calcium iodide, Nitrogen
trichloride, carbon disulphide, Disulphur dichloride, Dihydrogen monoxide
3. What is the chemical name of CaCO3, K3PO4, MgSO4, Zn(NO3)2, HBr, Li2CO3, K2Cr2O7,
NH4NO2, PF3, P4O6, CdI2, SrSO4, Al (OH) 3,Na2CO3, KClO, ClO2, Ag2CO3, FeCl2, PCl5, SO2,
KMnO4, FeO, S4N4 , NaH, Li3N, BF3, CBr4, Na2O, CsF, LiH, GaBr, N2O5, Fe (NO3)2, Na2SO3,
Fe2O3,CoBr2 ,FeCO3, P2S5
4. Explain the following reactions with two examples

(a) Synthesis (d) Decomposition
(b) Single replacement (e) Double replacement
5. Why the synthesis reaction is opposite to the decomposition reaction?
6. What is the difference between the displacement & double displacement reactions?
Write equations for these reactions
7. Calculate the molecular mass of the following substances:

(a) Ethyne (C2H2) (b) Sulphur molecule (S8) (c) Nitric acid (HNO3)
8. Each of the following compounds has three possible names listed for it. For each
compound, what is the correct name and why aren’t the other names used?
(a) N2O : nitrogen oxide, nitrogen (I) oxide, dinitrogen monoxide
(b) Cu2O : copper oxide, copper (I) oxide, dicopper monoxide
(c) Li2O : lithium oxide, lithium (I) oxide, dilithium monoxide
9. Each of the following compounds is incorrectly named. What is wrong with each name,
and what is the correct name for each compound?
(a) FeCl3 is iron chloride (c) NO2 is nitrogen (IV) oxide
(b) CaO is calcium(II) monoxide (d) Al2S3 is dialuminium trisulphide
(c) P2S5 is phosphorous sulphide
10. Determine the charge of the ions in parentheses.

(a) Ca(C2O4) (b) Ca(C2H3O2)2 (c) Mg3(AsO3)2
11. Name AlCl3 and PCl3. Explain why their names are so different.
12. Write the balanced equation for the following chemical reactions
(a) Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen chloride
(b) Barium chloride + Aluminum sulphate → Barium sulphate + Aluminum chloride
(c) Ammonium sulphate + Barium chloride → Ammonium chloride + Barium sulphate
(d) Sulphur tetrafluoride + Water → Sulphur dioxide + Hydrogen fluoride
(e) Calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide → Calcium carbonate + Water
(f) Zinc + Silver nitrate → Zinc nitrate + Silver
(g) Chromium (III) carbonate → Chromium (III) oxide + Carbon dioxide
(h) Aluminum + Copper chloride → Aluminum chloride + Copper
(i) Zinc carbonate →Zinc oxide + Carbon dioxide
13. Each of the following sets of reactants most probably represents which type of reactions.
(a) Two elements (d) Two compounds
(b) One compound (e) One element plus one compound
14. Write the balanced chemical equation with symbols for the following reactions:
(a) Solutions of potassium hydroxide and iron (III) chloride are mixed and iron (III)
hydroxide precipitates in a solution of potassium chloride
(b) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia
(c) Glucose (C6H12O6) reacts with oxygen gas to produce gaseous carbon dioxide and
water vapor.
(d) Copper wire is placed in a solution of silver nitrate, and metallic silver forms in a
solution of copper (II) nitrate
(e) Solid iron(III) sulphide reacts with gaseous hydrogen chloride to form solid iron (III)
chloride and hydrogen sulfide gas
(f) Hydrogen sulphide gas burns in air to give water and sulphur dioxide
(g) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
(h) Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with hydrochloric acid solution to produce sodium
chloride solution and water.
(i) Chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium bromide, forming bromine liquid
and potassium chloride solution
15. What is the formula of the compound corresponding to the combination of each of the
following pairs?
(a) Al and S (d) ClO3- and Co3+
(b) PO43- and Mg2+ (e) Carbon and chlorine
(c) Sodium and sulfur (f) Nitrogen and lithium
16. Consider the ion with the symbol X2+ formed from an element
(a) What is the group number of the element?
(b) If X is in period 2, what is the element?
(c) What is the formula of the compound formed from X and nitride ion?
17. Classify each of the following reactions as a synthesis, decomposition, single or double
replacement, combustion.
(a) 4 Fe + 3 O2 → 2 Fe2O3
(b) Mg + 2 AgNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2 Ag
(c) CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
(d) ZnCO3 → CO2 + ZnO
(e) Al2(SO4)3 + 6 KOH → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 K2SO4
(f) Pb + O2 → PbO2
18. Fill the blanks in the following table.
Cation Anion Formula Name

Magnesium bicarbonate
SrCl2
Fe3+ NO2-
Manganese(II) chlorate
SnBr4
Co2+ PO43-
Al3+ I-
Cu2CO3
Lithium nitride
Chapter-5
Chemical Bond
Dot & Cross Structure
 It consists of an element symbol surrounded by the dots or cross.
 The dot represents the valence electron & 8 electrons is the maximum
 These dots or cross must go on right & left hand side ( or )
 These dots or cross must go on top or bottom( or )
Note:
Hydrogen can never be a central atom
Carbon will always be a central atom
Chemical Bonding: Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atoms together in molecule.
Why do atoms combine to form molecules? This is because atoms of element try to attain a
more stable state.
How can an atom attain stability? In chemical process, atom generally attains stability by
trying to get either 8 electron (octet) or 2 electrons in the valence shell. The elements with 8
electrons or 2 electrons in the outermost shell are very stable. This is clearly seen in the
noble gases as the result of their 8 or 2 electron in the outermost shell. Atoms of other
elements try to attain the configuration of the noble gas, by losing or gaining the electron,
and thereby achieve stability.
Types of Chemical Bonding:
1. Covalent Bonding
2. Ionic Bonding
Valence electrons are distributed as shared or BOND PAIRS and unshared or LONE
PAIRS.
The no. of lone electrons + the no. of bonding electrons = the total no. of valence
electrons from a compound.
Covalent Bonding
 It is formed by sharing of an electrons pair between two atoms

 Mainly between two (or more) nonmetals in Group IV,V,VI,VII
 The neutral particle is formed when atom are share electrons
Each atom in the molecule contributes one or more electron for bond formation. The
sharing of electrons between the two atoms takes place in such a way that both the atoms
acquire the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.
Cl H Cl H H Cl
Hydrogen atom needs Atom share a pair of

Chlorine atom needs
one electron to electrons to form a
one electron to
complete its outer shell single covalent bond
complete its outer shell
Types of covalent bond:
1. Single Covalent Bond:

Electronic
1 1 2 2
Configuration
H H H H H H
He Configuration
Hydrogen atom Another Hydrogen
Atom share a one pair of
needs one electron atom also needs one
electrons to form a single
to complete its electron to complete
covalent bond (Hydrogen
outer shell its outer shell
molecule is formed)
2. Double Covalent Bond:
Electronic
2, 6 2, 6 2, 8 2, 8
Configuration
O O O O O O
Ne Configuration
Oxygen atom needs Another oxygen atom Atom share two pair of electrons
two electrons to also needs two to form a double covalent bond
complete its outer electrons to complete (Oxygen molecule is formed)
shell its outer shell
3. Triple Covalent Bond:
Electronic
2, 5 2, 5 2, 8 2, 8
Configuration
N N N N
N N
Atom share three pair of electrons
Nitrogen atom needs Another Nitrogen atom Ne Configuration
to form a triple covalent bond
three electrons to also needs three
(Nitrogen molecule is formed)
complete its outer electrons to complete
shell its outer shell
Ionic Bond
 Complete transfer of one or more electrons from the valence shell of one atom
to valence shell of another atom.
 It is formed when a metal (forms cation) transfer electrons to an nonmetal (forms
anion)
 The atom which loses the electron acquires the positive charge(called cation)& the
atom which accept the electron acquires the negative charge (called anion)
Formation of NaCl
Na Cl Na+ Cl-
Na Na+ + e_ Cl + e- Cl-
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6
Or Or Or Or
2, 8, 1 2, 8 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
An electron is transferred from the 3s orbitalof the sodium to the 3p orbital of the chlorine,
both the atom ends up with the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.Sodium
attains the electronic configuration of neon & chlorine attains the electronic configuration
of argon
Formation of MgCl2
Cl Cl-
Mg2+
Mg
g
Cl Cl-
Mg Mg2+ + e_ 2Cl + 2e- 2 Cl-

1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p5 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6
Or Or Or Or
2, 8, 2 2, 8 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
Magnesium attains the electronic configuration of neon & chlorine attains the electronic
configuration of argon .
Other examples are: KCl, Na2O, and CaO
Shapes of Molecules
Methane (CH4)
 H-C-H bond angle is 109o

 Tetrahedral shape
Ammonia (NH3)
 H-N-H angle is less than109°i.e.107°because the lone

pair likes to spread out as much as possible.
 Three bonding pair and one lone pair
 Trigonal shape
Water (H2O)
 H-O-H angle is even less than109°i.e.104.5°because the

two lone pair like to spread out as much as possible
 Two bonding pair and two lone pair
 Angular shape
Exercise:
1. Explain the formation of a chemical bond?
2. Write the Lewis dot symbols for the following atoms and ions: S and S2-, Al and Al3+, H
and H-, I and I-, P and P3-,Na and Na+, Mg and Mg2+, Al and Al3+,Pb and Pb2+
3. Define octet rule?
4. Why the bond angle in water is less than that of ammonia?
5. Use Lewis symbols to show electron transfer between the following atoms to form
cations and anions:
(a) K and S (b) Al and N (c) Ca and O
6. Draw diagrams showing the formation of a double and triple covalent bond between the
carbon atoms in C2H4 and C2H2 molecules
7. What do you understand why the bond pairs and lone pairs of the electron? Explain by
giving an example.
8. Identify the types of bonds in the molecules of each of the following substances: water,
ethylene, methane and sodium chloride
9. Give reason why in the compounds nonmetal form anions and not cations.
10. Which of the following compounds are likely to be ionic?
SiCl4, LiF, BaCl2, B2H6, KCl, C2H4, CH4, NaBr, BaF2, CCl4, CsCl, NF3
11. Write Lewis dot symbols for atoms of the following elements: Be, K, Ca, Ga, O, Br, N, I, As,
12. How many lone pairs are on the underlined atoms in these compounds? HBr, H2S, CH4.
13. Distinguish among single, double, and triple bonds in a molecule, and give an example of
each.
14. What type of bond formation occur in CaH2 and explain the bond formation
15. What is the difference between an ionic bond and covalent bond?
16. Draw the shapes of CH4 and NH3 with their shape name and bond angle
17. For each of the following pairs of elements, write the formula for and name the
compound that they are form. Also state whether the bonding in each compound is ionic
or covalent.
(a) Potassium and phosphorous (d) Carbon and fluorine
(b) Hydrogen sulfur (e) Potassium and hydrogen
18. What conditions causes two atoms to combine to form each of the following:
(a) A bond that is covalent
(b) A bond that is ionic
Chapter-6
Solution
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two substances: a solute and a solvent.
 Solute: substance being dissolved; present in lesser amount.
 Solvent: substance doing the dissolving; present in larger amount.
 Solutes and solvents may be of any form of matter: solid, liquid or gas
Solubility:
Maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific
temperature.
 Depends upon the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and pressure.
On the basis of solubility, the types of solutions are:

(1) Saturated solution
 Contains the maximum amount of solute in a given solvent at a specific temperature
 a solution in equilibrium with undissolved solute
(2) Unsaturated solution

 contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve
 a solution not in equilibrium with dissolved solute
 more solute can be dissolved
(3) Supersaturated solution

 contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution
 unstable solution
 Preparation : heat solution to high temperature, then slowly cool
Factors affecting the Solubility:
 Pressure effects: pressure has little effect on the solubilities of solid or liquids; it does
significantly increase the solubility of a gas. Carbonated drinks for example, are always
bottled at high pressures of carbon dioxide to ensure the high concentration of carbon
dioxide in the liquid. The fizzing that occurs when you open a can of soda results from
the escape of gaseous of carbon dioxide because under these condition the pressure of
CO2 above the solution is now much lower than that used in the bottling process
 Temperature effect: the dissolving of a solid occurs more rapidly at higher

temperatures, but the amount of solid that can be dissolved may increase or decrease
with increasing temperature. The effect of temperature on the solubility in water of
several solids is shown in solubility curve graph.
Note:
 Solubility of most solids (not all) in water increases with temperature,
 Example of exceptions where the solubilities of substance decreases with

increase in temperatures
CaSO4, Ca (OH) 2, Ce2 (SO4) 3
 The solubility of a gas in water always decrease with increasing temperature for
example SO2, NH3
Aqueous solutions
 Solutions in which water is the solvent
 Aqueous means water
E.g. NaOH in water, sugar in water, oil in water
Non aqueous solutions

 The solutions obtained by dissolving a solute in any solvent other than water
 Non aqueous means without water
E.g. Solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide, Solution of iodine in carbon tetrachloride,

Solution of iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine)
Expressing Concentration of Solution
The concentration of a solution refers to the relative amounts of a solute and solvent
present in the solution.
It may be expressed in a number of ways by describing the amount of a solute present in a
specific amount of a solvent of a solution.
Molarity: the number of moles of a solute dissolved per liter of a solution
No. of moles of solute

Molarity =
Volume of solution (liter)
1liter = 1dm3 1 ml = 1cm3 1liter = 1000 ml 1dm3 = 1000cm3
Mole: A mole is simply a unit of measurement or a unit of the amount of substances.

The atomic masses or the molecular masses when expressed in grams is called mole.
Units: moles
1mole of H atom is = 1 gm
1 mole of N2 molecule is = 28 gm
1 mole of NaCl atom is = 22.99+35.45=58.44 gm
1 mole of CO2 molecule is = 12+16X 2=44 gm
Total mass
No. of Moles =
Atomic Mass or molecular mass
Dilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solute in solution, simply by

mixing with more solvent (by adding water)
E.g. you can add water to concentrated orange juice to dilute it until it reaches a
concentration that is pleasant to drink.
 When more water is added to a solution, the volume increases, causing a decrease in
concentration.
 However, the amount of solute does not change.
 Volume and Concentration are inversely proportional
 The amount of solute depends on the concentration and the volume of the solution.
Therefore,
M1 x V1 = M2 x V2
Where M is the molarity of the solution
V is the volume of the solution
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Solutes can be classified by their ability to conduct an electrical current.
 When solutes called electrolytes dissolve in water, they separate into ions which are
able to conduct electricity.
E.g. when sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water, the sodium and chloride ions
are attracted to water molecules. In the process of dissociation, the ions separate
from the solid. As the ions separate from the solid, they are hydrated by surrounding
water molecules.
H2O
NaCl(s) Na+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
Magnesium nitrate dissolves in water to give one magnesium ion for every two
nitrate ions. However, only the ionic bonds between Mg2+ and NO3- are broken, not
the covalent bonds within the polyatomic ion. The dissociation for Mg (NO3)2 is
H2O
Mg (NO3)2 (s) Mg2+ (aq) + 2 NO3-(aq)
 When solute called nonelectrolytes dissolve in water, they do not separate into ions
and their solutions do not conduct electricity.
E.g. sugar is a nonelectrolyte that dissolves in water as whole molecules only
H2O
C12H22O11 (s) C12H22O11 (aq)
Exercise:
1. Define solute, solvent, and solution by describing the process of dissolving a solid in a liquid.
2. Answer the questions based on the solubility curve
(a) Which is more soluble NaNO3 or KCl?
(b) How many grams of NH4Cl will dissolve in 100 grams of 90°C Water?
(c) How many grams of NH4Cl will dissolve in 50 grams of 90°C water?
(d) How many grams of KClO3 will dissolve in 300 grams of 30°C water?
(e) How would you make a saturated solution of KNO3 at 60°C in 50 grams of water?
(f) If I asked you to make a saturated solution of KCl in 100 grams of water, what other
piece of information would you need before you could start?
(g) You start with a saturated solution of NH3 in 100 grams of water at 10°C. How many
grams of NH3 gas would bubble out of the solution if you raise the temperature to
80°C?
(h) A saturated solution of KNO3 in 400 grams of water at 50°C is cooled to 10°C. How
much KNO3 will come out of the solution as crystals?
3. Answer the questions based on the solubility
curve
(a) Which solution is saturated at 30oC?
(i) 12 grams of KClO3 in 100 grams of
water
(ii) 30 grams of NaCl in 100 grams of water
(iii) 12 grams of KClO3 in 200 grams of
water
(iv) 30 grams of NaCl in 200 grams of water
(b) 100 grams of water is saturated with

NH4Cl at 50oC. If the temperature is
lowered to 10oC, what is the total amount
of NH4Cl that will precipitate?
(c) A student uses 200 grams of water at a

temperature of 60°C to prepare a
saturated solution of potassium chloride,
KCl.
(i) Identify the solute in this solution.
(ii) According to the solubility graph, how
many grams of KCl must be used to
create this saturated solution?
(iii) This solution is cooled to 10°C and
(iii) This solution is cooled to 10°C and the excess KCl precipitates (settles out). The
the excess KCl precipitates (settles
resulting solution is saturated at 10°C. How many grams of KCl precipitated out of the
out). The resulting solution is
original solution?
saturated at 10°C. How many grams
of KCl precipitated out of the original
(d) At room temperature, the solubility of which solute in water would be most affected by a
solution?
change in pressure?
(d) At room temperature, the solubility of
(1) Methanol (l) (2) sugar (s) (3) carbon dioxide (g) (4) sodium nitrate (s)
which solute in water would be most
affected by a change in pressure?
(e) Which substance forms an unsaturated solution when 80 grams of the substance is
(1) Methanol (l) (2) sugar (s) (3)
dissolved in 100 grams of H2O at 10°C?
carbon dioxide (g) (4) sodium nitrate (s)
(1) KI (2) KNO3 (3) NaNO3 (4) NaCl
(e) Which substance forms an unsaturated

(f) A temperature change from 60°C to 90°C has the least effect on the solubility of
solution when 80 grams of the substance is
(1) SO2 (2) NH3 (3) KCl (4) KClO3
dissolved in 100 grams of H2O at 10°C?
(1) KI (2) KNO3
(3) NaNO3 (4) NaCl
(f) A temperature change from 60°C to 90°C
has the least effect on the solubility of
(1) SO2 (2) NH3
(3) KCl (4) KClO3
4. Answer the questions based on the solubility curve
(a) A solution of potassium chlorate, KClO3, has 20 grams of the salt dissolved in 100
grams of water at 70 ºC. Approximately how many more grams of the salt can be
added to the solution before reaching the saturation point?
(b) Which of these salts decreases in solubility as the temperature increases?
(c) When 20 grams of potassium chlorate, KClO3, is dissolved in 100 grams of water at
80 ºC, the solution can be correctly described as:
(1) Saturated (2) Supersaturated (3) Unsaturated
(d) A beaker containing 80 grams of Pb (NO3)2, in 100 grams of water have a
temperature of 30 ºC. How many grams of the salt are undissolved, on the bottom of
the beaker?
(e) Which salt is LEAST and MOST soluble at 0 0C?
(f) At approximately what temperature does the solubility of sodium chloride, NaCl,
match the solubility of potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7?
5. How many moles are present in 36 g of carbon?
6. Calculate mass of 4 mole of sodium chloride?
7. How many moles of Cl2 can be produced from 5.60 moles HCl? HCl + O2 → Cl2 + H2O
8. What mass of carbon dioxide is produced by the complete combustion of 100g of the
hydrocarbon pentane C5H12?
18. Calculate the Molarity of 25 g of KBr dissolved in 750 mL
19. 80 g of glucose (C6H12O6) is dissolved in enough water to make 1 L of solution. What is its
Molarity?
20. How many grams of KMnO4 are needed to make 500 mL of a 0.2 M solution?
21. 10 g of acetic acid (CH3COOH) is dissolved in 500 mL of solution. What is Molarity?
22. How many mL of solution will result when 15 g of H2SO4 is dissolved to make a 0.2 M
solution
23. What is the molarity of the final solution when 75 mL of 6.0 M KCl solution is diluted to
150 mL?
24. What volume (mL) of 0.20 M HCl solution can be prepared by diluting 50.0 mL of 1.0 M
HCl?
Chapter-7
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that deals with

1. How rapidly reactants are consumed and products are formed
2. How reaction rates get effected with the change in conditions such as concentration,
pressure etc.
3. The change of rate with, the presence of catalyst and
4. The identification of the steps by which a reaction takes place i.e. the mechanism of
the reaction
Rate of a reaction
The rate of reaction is a measure of the speed with which the reaction takes place. It is
define as the rate of reaction is defined as the change in molar concentration of any of
the reactants or products per unit time.
For example, consider a reaction in which one mole of A and react to form one mole each of
C and D
A+B→C+D
The rate of the reaction is expressed as
Rate = Decrease in conc. of A = Decrease in conc. of B
Time taken Time taken
or Rate = Increase in conc. of C = Increase in conc. of D
Time take Time taken
Since for every mole of A (or B) that reacts , one mole of the product C (or D) is formed,
therefore, the rate at which any one of the reactants disappears is equal to the rate at which
any of the products is formed
Rule of writing the rate of the reaction:
 Concentration of the reactant or product is represented by a square bracket i.e. the

symbol or formula of the substance is written in square bracket. Concentration is
expressed in moles per liter (mol/L)
 The symbol, Δ, is used to express the change (decrease or increase) in concentration/
time.
 Time is expressed in seconds.
The rate of reaction is now expressed as:
Rate = ‒ Δ [A] = ‒Δ [B]

Δt Δt
= + Δ [C] = +Δ [D]
Δt Δt
The negative sign indicates a decrease in concentration of reactants A or B in a given time

interval, Δt. The positive sign, on the other hand, indicates an increase in concentration of
products C or D, during the time interval, Δt.
Therefore, the unit of rate of reaction is mol/L sec
Now, for the reactions of the type

A+B→C+D
In which the balancing co-efficient of the different substances taking part in the reaction are
the same, the rate of disappearance of any of the reactants and the appearance of any of the
products are same. But, it is not true for reactions such as
A + B → 2C
In which the balancing co-efficient of different substance in the reaction are not equal. In
this reaction, the rate of disappearance of A is equal to the rate of disappearance of B but is
half of the rate of formation of C.
Therefore, changes in concentration in a reaction are related to each other. In order to
maintain equality on the rate of change of concentration of each substance, it is necessary to
divide each concentration change by its co-efficient in the balanced equation for the
reaction.
Thus the rate of the above reaction is given by
Rate = ‒ Δ [A] = ‒Δ [B] = + Δ [C]
Δt Δt 2Δ t
For example:
2 HI → H2 + I2
Rate = ‒ Δ [HI] = + Δ [H2] = + Δ [I2]

2Δ t Δt Δt
Factors which influence the rate of reaction are:
1. Effect of chemical nature of the reactants

Generally a reaction taking place between the ionic compounds is faster than the
reaction taking place between the covalent carbon compounds
For example:
i. The reaction between NaCl andAgNO3(both ionic compounds) in solution to
give AgCl precipitate and NaNO3 occurs very fast
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) AgCl + NaNO3 (aq)
ii. The reaction between ethyl alcohol and acetic acid (both covalent
compounds) to form ethyl acetate and water occurs slowly
C2H5OH (l) + CH3COOH (l) H+ CH3COOC2H5 (l) + H2O (l)

The reactions taking place between covalent carbon compounds involve breaking of
the covalent bonds existing among the atoms of the reactants and forming of the new
covalent bonds, among the atoms that form the products. Hence these reactions are
slow. In ionic reactions however no such breaking and forming of bonds is necessary.
Hence these ionic reactions are faster than the covalent reactions.
2. Effect of concentration of reactants

Concentration refers to how much solute is dissolved in a solution. If a greater
concentration of reactant atoms and molecules is present, there is a greater chance
that collisions will occur among them. More collisions mean a higher reaction rate.
Thus, increasing the concentration of the reactants usually results in a higher
reaction rate. At lower concentrations, there is less chance for collisions between
particles. This means that decreasing the concentrations of the reactants results in a
lower reaction rate.
3. Effect of temperature
The rate of reaction generally increases with increase in the temperature of the
reaction. At higher temperatures, the increase in kinetic energy makes the reacting
molecules move faster, so that they collide with each other more frequently and with
more energy. Thus, the higher the temperature, the greater the rate of reaction. If you
decrease the temperature, the opposite effect occurs. The particles move more
slowly, colliding less frequently and with less energy. In this case, the rate of reaction
decreases.
4. Surface area
It is the measure of how much area of an object is exposed. For the same mass, many
small particles have a greater total surface area than one large particle. For example,
steel wool has a larger surface area than a block of steel of the same mass. This
allows oxygen molecules to collide with many more iron atoms per unit of time. The
more surface contact between reactants, the higher the rate of reaction. The less
surface contact, the lower the reaction rate.
5. Effect of catalyst
Reactions that take place slowly at room temperature are fastened by adding another
substance generally in small amounts to the reaction mixture. This substance is
called catalyst. The catalyst involved in the reaction but is not consumed in the
reaction. Catalysts reduce the amount of energy required to break and form bonds
during a chemical reaction. When catalysts are used, a reaction can proceed although
less energy is added during the reaction. For example, enzymes are catalysts that
allow chemical reactions to occur at relatively low temperatures within the body
Exercise:
1. Define rate of reaction. How it is generally represented?

2. What is the unit of a rate of reaction?
3. What is meant by rate of reaction? Give its symbolic representation and unit for the
reaction.
CO + NO2 → CO2 + NO
How do temperature and catalyst affect the rate of reaction?
4. Express the rates of the following reactions in terms of the concentrations of reactants
and products.
(a) N2O4 → NO2 (c) N2 + H2 → NH3
(b) N2O5 → NO2 + O2 (d) O3 →O2
5. List the factors that can be varied to change the speed of a particular reaction
OR
Name the various factors which influence the rate of a reaction.
OR
Explain the role of temperature and catalyst on the rate of reaction
6. In the following reaction, what happens to the number of collisions when more Br2
molecules are added?
H2 (g) + Br2 (g) →2HBr (g)
7. How would each of the following change the rate of the reaction shown here?
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)
(a) Adding SO2
(b) Raising the temperature
(c) Adding the catalyst
(d) Removing some O2
8. Why are reactions between ions in solution usually very much faster than reactions
between covalent substances?
9. What are a catalyst and its importance?
10. Explain the factors affecting the rate of reaction?
11. Explain the influence of temperature on the rate of chemical reaction.
Chapter-8
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are the compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms bonded to each
other by covalent bonds
Two types of hydrocarbons:
1. Saturated hydrocarbon: have only single covalent bond between carbon atoms. These
hydrocarbons are classified as alkane.
Alkane: hydrocarbons with single covalent bond.
Alkane is used in petroleum, petrol, diesel oil. C C
General formula is Cn H2n+2
Name Molecular formula (Cn H2n+2 )
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12
IUPAC rules for Naming Alkanes
1. Select the longest continuous chain

2. Number the longest chain: The numbering is started from that end which will give
numbering having the lowest value to carbons carrying substituent’s
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
CH3-CH2-CH-CH3 CH3 - CH2 – CH - CH3
CH3 CH3
Correct wrong
3. Identify the substituent: Name the substituents. Indicate its position by the number
of carbon atoms to which it is attached.
4 3 2 1 1 2 3
CH3-CH2-CH-CH3 CH3-CH-CH3
CH3 OH
2 Methyl butane 2- hydroxy propane
Alkyl group:
An alkyl group is formed by removing one hydrogen atom from an alkane
CH4 -H CH3 CH3 CH3 -H CH3CH2

Methane methyl Ethane Ethyl
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbon: have double or triple covalent bond between carbon atoms.
a) Alkenes: have a double covalent bond in carbon atoms
Alkenes are used in polyethene C = C
General formula is Cn H2n
Structure of Ethene
Name Molecular formula (Cn H2n)
Ethene C2H4
Propene C3H6
Butene C4H8
Pentene C5H10
IUPAC rules for Naming Alkenes

1. Select the longest carbon chain containing the double bond
2. Name the longest chain. The name is obtained by dropping the final –ane from the
name of the corresponding alkane, and adding the ending —ene acid
Alkane —ane + ene = Alkene
3. Number the chain from the end closer to the double bond
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
CH3-CH2-CH=CH2 CH3-CH2-CH=CH2
Correct wrong
4. Alkyl groups and other substituent’s are numbered ,named and placed as prefixes in
alphabetic order
b) Alkynes: have a triple covalent bond in carbon atoms C C

Alkynes are used in welding purpose (gas is acetylene)
General formula is Cn H2n-2
Structure of Ethyne Name Molecular formula ( Cn H2n - 2)
Ethyne C2H2
Propyne C3H4
Butyne C4H6
Pentyne C5H8
IUPAC rules for Naming Alkynes
1. Select the longest carbon chain containing the triple bond
2. Name the longest chain. The name is obtained by dropping the final –ane from the
name of the corresponding alkane, and adding the ending —yne acid
Alkane —ane + yne = Alkyne
3. Number the chain from the end closer to the triple bond
1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1
CH3-C ≡ C-CH2-CH3 CH3-C ≡ C-CH2-CH3
Correct wrong
4. Alkyl groups and other substituent’s are numbered ,named and placed as prefixes in
alphabetic order
IUPAC rules for Naming Alkyl Halides
1. Select the longest carbon chain to which halogen is attached
2. Prefix the name of the alkane by chloro , bromo , iodo , flouro
3. Number the chain so as to give the carbon carrying the halogen atom the lowest
possible numbers
4. Other substituent’s are numbered, named and placed as prefixes in alphabetic order. If
there are two or more identical halogen substituents, the prefixes di—, tri—, tetra—etc.
are used.
1 2 3 5 4 3 2 1
CH3—CH—CH3 CH2—CH2—CH2—CH—CH3
Br Cl
2-bromo propane 2- Chloro pentane
Cl
CH3—CH2—C—CH2—CH2—Br 1-Bromo-3, 3,-dichloropentane
Cl
5 4 3 2 1
Preparation of alkane:
1. From unsaturated hydrocarbons: Hydrogen gas adds to alkenes and alkynes in the
presence of catalysts like platinum, palladium or nickel to form alkane. This process is
called hydrogenation.
Pt/Pd/Ni
CH2 = CH2 + H2 CH3 — CH3
Ethene Ethane
CH3 — CH = CH2 + H2 Pt/Pd/Ni CH3 — CH2 — CH3

Propene Propane
Pt/Pd/Ni
CH3 C ≡ C — H + 2H2 CH3 — CH2 — CH3
Propyne Propane
2. From alkyl halides: Alkyl halides (except fluorides) on reduction with zinc and dilute
hydrochloric acid give alkane.
CH3 — Cl + H2 Zn, H+ CH4 + HCl

Chloromethane Methane
Zn, H+
C2H5 — Cl + H2 C2H6 + HCl
Chloroethane Ethane
Zn, H+
C3H7 — Cl + H2 C3H8 + HCl
Chloropropane Propane
Hydrocarbon reactions: they undergo three types of reaction

1. Combustion reaction: hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Methane
C2H4 + 3O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Ethene
2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O
Ethyne
2. Substitution reaction:
 Only saturated hydrocarbon (alkane) undergoes substitution reaction.
 One or more hydrogen atoms of alkane can be replaced by halogens, nitro group and
sulphonic acid group.
 Halogenation takes place either at higher temperature (573-773 K) or in the
presence of sunlight
Halogenation: CH4 + Cl2 hv CH3Cl + HCl
Chloromethane
CH3Cl + Cl2 hv CH2 Cl2 + HCl

Dichloromethane
hv
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl
Tri chloromethane
hv
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
Tetra chloromethane
3. Addition reaction: Only unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction. Alkenes

and alkynes react with halogen and hydrogen halides
Addition of hydrogen halide:

CH2 = CH2 + HCl CH3 — CH2Cl
Ethene Chloroethane
CH ≡ CH + HBr CH2 = CH Br
Ethyne Bromoethene
Markovnikov Rule: The rule states that negative part of the adding molecule gets attached
to that carbon atom which possess lesser number of hydrogen atoms
Or
When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a hydrogen halide to give an alkyl halide, the
hydrogen adds to the carbon that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents, and the
halogen to the carbon having the fewer number of hydrogen substituents
H3C—CH=CH2 + H—Br → H3C—CHBr —CH3
Addition of halogens: CH2=CH2 + Cl2 CH2Cl— CH2Cl

Ethene Dichloroethane
CH ≡ CH + Cl2 CHCl = CHCl + Cl2 CHCl2 — CHCl2

Ethyne Dichloroethene Dichloroethane
Isomerism: Difference in the arrangement of atom in the molecule i.e., the isomers have
different structure
Butane (C4H10)
Butene (C4H8)
H2C = C — CH3
CH3
2 methyl 1-propene
Pentane (C5H12)
Pentene (C5H10)
H H H H H
H3C —HC = CH — CH2 — CH3
H C C C C C H
2-pentene
H H H H
1 -pentene
H H
H H H
H C C C C H
H C C C C H
H CH3 H H
CH3 H H H H H
2 –methyl 2- butene
H C C C C H
2 –methyl 1 butene
H CH3 H
H
3 –methyl 1 butene
Functional groups: is the group which largely determines the chemical properties of a
compound, e.g. CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH are all collectively called alcohols as the common
reactive group in all these is -OH
Importance of Functional Groups:

1. Functional groups serve as a basis for nomenclature of organic compounds.
2. These make the identification of organic compounds easy
3. The properties and nature of a newly synthesized organic compound can be
established on the basis of functional groups present in it.
Name of the family Functional group Example

Alkenes ˃C=C˂ CH2= CH2
Alkynes —C ≡ C— CH≡CH
Alcohols R—OH C2H5OH (Ethanol)
Aldehydes —CHO CH3CHO (Acetaldehyde)
Ketones ˃C = O CH3COCH3 (Acetone)
Carboxylic acids —COOH CH3COOH (Acetic acid)
Alcohols:
Alcohols are compounds in which a hydroxyl group (—OH) is bonded to a saturated

carbon. Example: Ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH), Propyl alcohol (CH3CH2CH2OH)
IUPAC rules for Naming Alcohols
1. Select the longest carbon chain to which hydroxyl group is attached

2. Number the chain so as to give the carbon carrying the halogen atom the lowest
possible numbers
3. Name the longest chain. The name is obtained by dropping the final –e from the name
of the corresponding alkane that contains the same number of carbon atoms, and adding
the ending —ol
Alkane —e + ol = Alkanol
4. Indicate the position of the hydroxyl group by the number of the carbon attached to the
hydroxyl group
5. Other substituent’s are numbered ,named and placed as prefixes in alphabetic order
1 2 3 4 5 3 2 1
CH3—CH—CH2—CH2—CH3 CH3—CH2—CH
OH OH
2- Pentanol 1- propanol
Aldehydes:
Aldehydes are compounds in which the carbonyl group (C=O) is bonded to an organic group
and hydrogen.
Example: Formaldehyde (H—C—H), Acetaldehyde (CH3—C—H)
‖ ‖
O O
Methanal Ethanal
IUPAC rules for Naming Aldehydes

1. Select the longest carbon chain to which aldehyde group is attached
2. Number the chain by assigning the number 1 to aldehyde carbon.
of the corresponding alkane, and adding the ending —al
Alkane —e + al = Alkanal
CH3 O
⎹ ‖
CH3—CH—CH2—C—H
4 3 2 1
3-methyl butanal
Ketones:
Ketones are compounds in which the carbonyl group (C=O) is bonded to two organic
groups.
Example: Acetone (CH3—C—CH3)

‖
O
Propanone
IUPAC rules for Naming Ketones

1. Select the long chain containing the carbonyl carbon atom
2. Number the chain to give the lowest number to the carbonyl carbon
of the corresponding alkane, and adding the ending —one
Alkane —e + one acid = Alkanone
O CH3 O
‖ ⎹ ‖
CH3 —CH2—C—CH3 CH3—CH —CH2—C—CH3
4 3 2 1
2- Butanone 4-Methyl-2-pentanone
Carboxylic Acid:
Carboxylic acids are compounds which contain the carboxyl group (—COOH)
IUPAC rules for Naming Carboxylic acids

1. Select the long chain containing the carboxyl group
of the corresponding alkane, and adding the ending -oic acid
Alkane —e + oic acid = Alkanoic acid
3. Number the chain starting with carboxyl carbon as number 1
CH3 O
⎹ ‖
CH3 —CH—CH2 —C—OH 3 Methyl butanoic acid
4 3 2 1
Exercise:
1. Explain the classification of hydrocarbons

2. What are the types of bond presents in alkenes and alkynes respectively?
3. Explain the following terms: Alkyl group, Homologous series
4. Why alkanes are called saturated hydrocarbons? What is the general formula assigned to
alkanes?
5. Explain the method of preparation of alkane from Alkyne
OR
Explain the preparation of propane from Propyne
OR
How would you convert?
(a) Ethyne to ethane (b) 2-Butene to butane
6. Write a note on combustion of hydrocarbons.
7. What is Markownikoff’s rule? Explain with the help of example
8. Explain the halogenations of methane with the help of reaction and name the products
formed in the reaction.
OR
Explain the hydrogenation reaction in alkane.
OR
What is the action of chlorine on methane?
9. What do you understand by the term functional group? Give the structures and names of
the four functional groups?
10. Give an example reaction that would yield the following products. Name the organic
reactant and product in each reaction.
(a) Alkane (d) Mono halogenated alkane
(b) Di halogenated alkane (e) Tetra halogenated alkane
(c) Alkene
11. Name the class of compounds to which each of the following belongs:
(a) CH3CH2CH2CH3 (d) CH3C≡CH (f) CH3OH
(b) HCOOH (e) CH3CH2OCH (g) CH3—
(c) CH3CH2—
12. Draw a structural formula for each of the following compounds.

(a) 2,4-dibromopentane (g) 2- methyl propane
(b) 2,3-dimethyl butane (h) 2, 2, 4-Trimethylpentane
(c) 3-Methyl-1-butanol (i) 2-Chloro-4-Methylpentane
(d) 2-Chloro-2-methylpropane (j) 1- Butyne
(e) 1-chloro-2- butane (k) 4-methyl 1-pentyne
(f) 2- butene (l) 2,3 dichloro 2-pentene
13. Write the names for each of the following compounds:
OH
⎹
(a) CH3—CH—CH2—CH2—CH3 (j) CH3—CH2—CH2COOH
CH3
Cl
⎹
(b) CH3—CH—CH2COOH (k) CH3 —CH2 —CH2—C — Cl
Cl
CH3
(c) CH2 = CH —CH2—CH3 (l) CH3— CH = CH —CH2
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

(d) CH3— C = C — CH3 (m) C ≡ C — CH — CH3
CH3
(e) CH2 = C — CH — CH3 (n) CH3— C —CH2 —CH3
CH3 CH2 — CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3
(f) Cl — CH2 —CH2 —CH—CH3 (o) CH3— C —CH2 —C—CH3
Cl CH3 CH3
CH2— CH3
(g) CH3— C —CH2 —CH3 (p) CH2 = CH —CH2 —CH—CH3
CH2 — CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3
(h) C Cl —CH —CH—CH3 (q) CH3— C —CH2 —CH—CH3
CH3 Cl CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3 CH2CH3 CH3 Br

(i) C=C (r) C=C
CH3CH2 CH3 H H
14. What is wrong with the following names? Give the correct name for each compound
(a) 2 - ethyl propane (d) 4- methyl 3- pentene
(b) 1-ethyl 1- methyl propene (e) 2- ethyl butane
(c) 2-chloro 2- butyne (f) 1-methyl propane
15. Draw the isomers of pentene with their name?

16. A compound containing a —CHO group in its molecule is known as________________________
17. Name a functional group which contains only carbon and oxygen
18. Name at least one compound of each of the following classes, write its formula also.
(a) Aldehyde (c) Alkyne
(b) Alcohol (d) Carboxylic acid
19. Complete the following reactions and name the reactant and product:
(a) CH3CH = CHCH3 + H2 Pt
(b) 2CH3Br + ______________ → ______________ + 2NaBr
(c) CH3Cl + ____________ → _______________ + HCl
(d) C2H4 + _____________→ ___________ + H2O
(e) CH3—CH = CH2 + HI →
(f) CH3CH2C ≡ CH + 2HBr →
CH3 CH2CH3
(g) C=C + HCl →
CH3 H
Chapter-9
Redox Reaction
Definitions
 Oxidation:
 loss of electrons Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-
Sn2+ → Sn4+ + 2e-
 Reduction:
 gain of electrons Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Fe3+ + e- → Fe2+
Hg2+ + e- → Hg +
Further, in a chemical reaction, there is no net loss or gain of electrons. Therefore, loss and
gain of electrons from one substance to another must take place simultaneously. In other
words, in a chemical reaction, a substance can gain electrons only if another substance that
can lose electrons is also present in the reaction. Similarly, a substance can lose electrons
only if another substance that can gain electrons is also present in the reaction. This means
oxidation can take place only if reduction also takes place at the same time and vice-versa.
Therefore, oxidation and reduction always occur side by side. For Example, let us consider
reaction between sodium metal and chlorine to form sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2 (g) → 2NaCl(s)
No. of electrons lost = no. of electrons gain

(i) 2Na → 2Na+ +2e- (oxidation half)
(ii) Cl2 + 2e - → 2Cl - (reduction half)
2Na + Cl2 → 2Na+Cl - (Redox reaction)
Thus, the overall reaction involves the transfer of electrons from sodium metal to chlorine.
It means, that sodium metal gets oxidized to Na+ ion while chlorine gets reduced to Cl- ions
so that overall reaction involves oxidation and reduction and is known as REDOX Reaction
REDOX reaction is the sum of an oxidation half-reaction in which electrons are lost and a
reduction half- reaction in which electrons are gained.
More examples of redox reactions are:
Oxidation: 2e- lost Oxidation: 2e- lost
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → MgO(s) Ca + 2HBr → CaBr2 + H2
Reduction: 2e- gained Reduction: 2e- gained
On the basis of electron transfer, an oxidizing agent may be defined as the substance which
can accept electrons and reducing agent as that which can lose electrons. The oxidizing
agent itself, however, gets reduced while the reducing agent gets oxidized. In the formation
of NaCl from sodium and chlorine, chlorine acts as oxidizing agent and sodium acts as
reducing agent.
Oxidation number
It is the number that tells the extent to which an element has been oxidized or reduced in a
compound or ion.
In other words, oxidation number is used to designate the positive and negative character of
atoms in a compound or ions. When valence electrons are removed in ionic bond formation
or shifted away in a covalent bond formation from an atom during a chemical reaction, the
atom is assigned a positive oxidation number or it is said to have positive oxidation state.
When electrons are gained by or shifted towards an atom during a chemical reaction, the
atom is given a negative oxidation number or is said to have negative oxidation state.
Rules for assigning oxidation number:

1. The oxidation number of elements in Free State (i.e. elemental state), is Zero
irrespective of the molecular form of the element.
Such as H2, Br2, O2, Cl2, O3, S8, Na, Mg, Al etc. have zero oxidation number.
2. For ions composed of only one atom, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the
ion. Thus Na+ ion has an oxidation number of +1, O2- ion -2, Fe3+ ion 3+
Element oxidation state
Group 1metals always +1

Group 2 metals always +2
Oxygen usually -2
Hydrogen usually +1
Fluorine always -1
Chlorine usually -1
3. The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms in a compound is zero. In
polyatomic ion, the algebraic sum of all the oxidation numbers of atoms of the ion must
equal the charge on the ion. Thus the sum of the oxidation number of three oxygen
atoms and one carbon atom in the carbonate ion (CO3)2- must equal -2
Redox reaction in terms of Oxidation number
An atom undergoes oxidation when it increases its oxidation number. It undergoes

reduction when its oxidation number decreases. Since the no. of electrons in a chemical
reaction remains the same, reduction of one atom must accompany the oxidation of another.
Therefore, any reaction involving changes in oxidation numbers is an oxidation-reduction or
redox reaction.
For example,
Increase of O.N (Reducing agent)
0 +1 -1 +2 -1 0
Sn + 2 H Cl → Sn Cl2 + H2
Decrease of O.N (Oxidizing agent)
Sn is converted to Sn2+ by losing two electrons and gets oxidized. On the other hand, H+ ion
gains electron and gets reduced. It may also be seen that oxidation number of Sn increases
from 0 to 2+ when it gets oxidized. The oxidation number of H decreases from 1+ to 0 when
it gets reduced. Therefore, oxidation is an increase in oxidation number while reduction
is decrease in oxidation number
Oxidizing and Reducing agent:

An Oxidizing agent is a substance which undergoes decrease of oxidation number of one or
more of its constituent atoms. Likewise, a Reducing agent is a substance which undergoes
increase of oxidation number of one or more of its constituent atoms.
In the reaction above, HCl acts as oxidizing agent while Sn acts as reducing agent.
Exercise:
1. Define the terms: oxidation, reduction, redox reaction, oxidizing agent, reducing agent
2. Calculate the oxidation number to the underlined elements in each of the following
compounds: NaH2PO4, NaHSO4, H4P2O7, KMnO4, CaO2, NaBH4, KI, H2S2O7,KAl(SO4)2, Cs2O,
CaI2, Al2O3, H3AsO3, TiO2, MoO42-, PtCl42-, PtCl62-, SnF2, ClF3, SbF6- C2O42-, ZnO22-
3. Assign the oxidation state for nitrogen in each of the following:
(a) Li3N (d) NO2 (f) NH3 (h) NO2-
(b) N2H4 (e) NO3- (g) N2O (i) N2
4. Assign oxidation states for all atoms in each of the following compounds.
(a) Na4Fe(OH)6 (g) Fe3O4 (m) NiO2 (r) XeOF4
(b) (NH4)2HPO4 (h) CO (n)P4O6 (s) C6H12O6
(c) UO22+ (i) Mg2P2O7 (o)NaBiO3 (t)Hg2Cl2
(d) As4 (j) HAsO2 (p) SrCr2O7 (v) PbSO3
(e) Na2C2O4 (k) MgCO3 (q) O2 (w) Sb2N6
5. Identify the substance oxidized, reduced, oxidizing agent and reducing agent for each of
the following reactions:
(a) 2Na + H2 → 2NaH (g) CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
(b) Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 (h) 2K + F2 → 2KF
(c) 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O (i) H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S
(d) 3Fe3O4 + 8 Al → 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 (j) 2Al +3I2 → 2AlI3
(e) PbO + CO → Pb + CO2 (k) HCl + NH3 → NH4Cl
(f) SiCl4 + 2H2O → 4HCl + SiO2 (l) MnO2 + 4HCl → MnCl2 +Cl2 +2H2O
6. Identify the following reactions as redox or non-redox by determining the oxidation

states of the products and reactants:
(a) 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (f) Ba(OH)2 + CO2 → BaCO3 + H2O
(b) 2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl (g) NaOH + HCl → NaOH + H2O
(c) Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2 (h) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(d) HCl + AgNO3 → AgCl + HNO3 (i) 2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO +2SO2
(e) SiCl4 + 2Mg → 4 MgCl2 + Si
7. What is an oxidizing agent and reducing agent in terms of oxidation number?
8. What is an oxidation number? How is it used to identify redox reactions?

OR
9. Define redox reaction in terms of oxidation number.
Chapter-10
Electrochemistry
A redox reaction is usually a spontaneous process. When a redox reaction is carried out
indirectly i.e. when reactants undergoing oxidation and reduction are not in contact with
each other, the chemical energy of the reaction is converted to electrical energy.
Any such device which converts the chemical energy of a redox reaction into electrical energy
is called electrochemical cell. It is also known as Galvanic cell or Voltaic cell after the
names of Galvani and Volta who made the discoveries.
Electrochemical cells
Construction of electrochemical cell: Redox reaction between Zn-CuSO4
 The device consists of two beakers A and beaker B, of which A contains 0.1 M zinc
sulphate solution and a zinc plate dipping in it while B contains 0.1 M copper
sulphate solution and a copper plate dipping in it.
 The two solutions are connected by a salt bridge which an inverted U-tube is
containing a solution of another electrolyte, such as K2SO4 which does not change
chemically during the process. Other electrolytes such as KNO3, NaCl, and KCl can
also be used in the salt bridge.
 When the two metallic plates are connected through a wire, the reaction take place
and electric current begins to flow as shown by the ammeter.
Working:
As soon as the two metal rods are connected and salt bridge is placed in position, zinc starts
dissolving in solution due to its oxidation to zinc ions
Zn →Zn2+ + 2e-
The electrons so lost deposited on the zinc rod and getting a negative charge. These
electrons are then pushed through the connecting wire to the coper rod where these are
gained by cupric ions (Cu2+) which get reduced to copper atoms and deposit on the copper
rod.
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Due to consumption of electrons the copper rod is relatively poorer in electrons and is
getting a positive charge.
The two metal rods are called electrodes. The electrode at which oxidation takes place is
called anode and the electrode at which reduction take place is called cathode. Since
oxidation take place at zinc electrode it acts as anode and copper rod, where reduction takes
place, acts as cathode.
The reaction in electrochemical cell takes place in two separate beakers. Each beaker
constitutes a half cell. The reaction taking place in a half cell is called half-cell reaction. The
half-cell reaction in which electrons are gained is called reduction half reaction and the one
in which electrons are gained is called reduction half reaction.
The net electrochemical cell reaction is the combination of oxidation and reduction half-cell
reactions as shown:
Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e_ (Oxidation half reaction)

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) (Reduction half reaction)
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s) (Cell reaction)
Observations:
 There is a flow of electrons from zinc plate to the copper plate as indicated by the
direction of deflection of the ammeter needle.
 The zinc plate is gradually eaten away as it loses electrons to form Zn2+ ions which go
into solution
 The copper plate gains in weight because the electrons lost by zinc are transferred to
copper ions which get deposited on copper plate as metallic copper
 The solution remains electrically neutral throughout.
 The reaction and alongwith it the flow of current stops after some time
Function of the Salt Bridge

 The salt bridge helps in maintaining the electrical neutrality of two solutions by
allowing the transfer of ions and thus keeps the electric current flowing by
completing the circuit.
Symbolic Representation of Galvanic cell:
Rules of symbolic representation:
1. The anode is written on the left hand side is represented by writing metal or solid
phase. The two are separated by a semicolon or a vertical line. For example,
Zn; Zn2+ or Zn/ Zn2+ or Zn; ZnSO4
2. The cathode is written on the right hand side and is represented by writing metal
ions (or electrolyte) first and the metal (or solid phase). The two are separated by a
semicolon or a vertical line. For example,
Cu2+; Cu or Cu2+/Cu or CuSO4; Cu
3. The salt bridge is indicated by two vertical lines separating the two half cells
Symbolic Representation of Galvanic cell now is
Zn; Zn2+ // Cu2+; Cu
Electrochemical Series: The table in which standard electrode potentials are arranged in
increasing order.
EMF of a cell or Cell Potential

An electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes, electron flow from one electrode to
another only if there is potential difference between them. The difference of potential
between the electrodes which makes the electricity to flow from the electrode at higher
potential to the electrode at lower potential is called EMF of a cell or cell potential.
It is measured in Volts.
Importance of Electrochemical Series
1. Calculation of EMF of a cell: The EMF of a galvanic cell is calculated through the
following steps:
 A galvanic cell is made such a way that anode (having lower value of electrode
potential) is shown on the left hand side while cathode (having higher value of
electrode potential) is shown on the right hand side.
Zn; Zn2+ // Cu2+; Cu

(Anode) (Cathode)
LHS RHS
E0 = -0.76 V E0 = + 0.34 V
 E cell = E right – E left

= E cathode – E anode
 On calculation, if E cell has a positive value, the cell reaction is feasible.
On the other hand, if E cell has a negative value, the cell reaction is not feasible, i.e. in
actual operation of the cell, the electrodes will have reversed functions for what have
been assigned to them
2. Electrochemical series helps us to predict whether a redox reaction will be

feasible or not.
Only those redox reactions are feasible for which E cell has positive value such as
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq) E cell = +1.1 V

Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) → H2 (g) + Zn2+ (aq) E cell = +0.76 V
However, the following redox reactions are not feasible as E cell for them has negative
value:
Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq) → Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) E cell = -1.1 V

Zn2+ (aq) + H2 (g) → 2H+ (g) + Zn (s) E cell = -0.76 V
Similarly, electrochemical series help us to predict the displacement of an element from

its solution which is lower in electrochemical series by an element which is higher in
electrochemical series. For example
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq)

2I- (aq) + Cl2 (g) → 2Cl- (aq) + I2(s)
In the same way, electrochemical series help us to predict the displacement of hydrogen
from acids by the elements which are above hydrogen in electrochemical series as
Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) → H2 (g) + Zn2+ (aq)
Electrochemical Series of Standard Electrode Potentials at 298 K
Electrode Standard
Cathode (Reduction)
Potential
Half-Reaction
E° (volts)
Li/Li+ Li+(aq) + e- Li(s) -3.045
K/K+ K+(aq) + e- K(s) -2.925
Ba/Ba2+ Ba2+(aq) + 2e- Ba(s) -2.906
Ca/Ca2+ Ca2+(aq) + 2e- Ca(s) -2.866
Na/Na+ Na+(aq) + e- Na(s) -2.714
Mg/Mg2+ Mg2+(aq) + 2e- Mg(s) -2.365
Mn/Mn2+ Mn2+(aq) + 2e- Mn(s) -1.180
Zn/Zn2+ Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Zn(s) -0.763
Fe/Fe2+ Fe2+(aq) + 2e- Fe(s) -0.440
Cd/Cd2+ Cd2+(aq) + 2e- Cd(s) -0.403
Ni/Ni2+ Ni2+(aq) + 2e- Ni(s) -0.25
Sn/Sn2+ Sn2+(aq) + 2e- Sn(s) -0.137
Pb/Pb2+ Pb2+(aq) + 2e Pb(s) -0.125
H2/2H+ 2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g) 0.00
Cu/Cu2+ Cu2+(aq) + e- Cu+(aq) +0.337
I2/2I- I2(s) + 2e- 2I-(aq) +0.537
Ag/Ag+ Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s) +0.799
Hg/Hg2+ Hg2+(aq) + 2e- Hg(l) +0.859
Br2/2Br- Br2(l) + 2e- 2Br-(aq) +1.065
Cl2/2Cl- Cl2(g) + 2e- 2Cl-(aq) +1.361
Au/Au2+ Au2+(aq) + 2e- Au(s) +1.498
F2/2F- F2(g) + 2e- 2F-(aq) +2.87
Electrolysis:
The chemical decomposition of a compound by means of electricity is called electrolysis.
The process of electrolysis is carried out in a vessel known as electrolytic tank which
contains aqueous solution of the electrolyte. Two metallic plates or rods known as
electrodes are dipped into the solution of electrolyte. One electrode is connected to the
positive terminal and is called anode. The other electrode is connected to the negative
terminal and called cathode.
Electrolytic cell
When an electrolyte is dissolved in water it produces a positively charged and negatively

charged particles called ions. These ions move here and there in the solution. On passing
electric current the ions start moving towards oppositely charged electrodes. The positively
charged ions move towards cathode and are called cations while negatively charged ions move
towards the anode and are called anions. As these ions reach the respective electrodes, a
chemical reaction takes place.
Such a reaction that takes place at the electrode between electrolyte and electrode is called
electrochemical reaction. Reactions taking place at cathode is always reduction which
involves the gain of electrons by the cation. Reactions taking place at anode is always
oxidation which involves the loss of electrons by a substance.
Mechanism of electrolysis: Let us explain the mechanism of electrolysis by taking example

of molten sodium chloride and aqueous solutions of sodium chloride and copper sulphate as
given below.
(a) Mechanism of electrolysis of molten sodium chloride:
Molten sodium chloride contains free moving Na+ and Cl- ions.
NaCl ⇌ Na+ + Cl-
On passing electric current through the molten sodium chloride Na+ ions migrate
towards the cathode while Cl- ions migrate towards the anode. The following reaction
take place as soon as the ions reaches their respective electrodes.
At the cathode 2Na+ + 2e- → 2Na
At the anode 2Cl- - 2e- → 2Cl
2Cl → Cl2
Therefore, the overall reaction is
2Na+Cl- Electrolysis 2Na + Cl2
Thus, the sodium metal is deposited at the cathode while chlorine gas is liberated at the
anode.
(b) Mechanism of electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride solution:

An aqueous solution of sodium chloride contains large number of sodium ions and
chloride ions along with some H+ ions and OH- (which come from the water). Thus,
there are two types of cations, i.e. Na+ and H+ ions along with two types of anions, i.e. Cl-
and OH- ions in the aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
On passing electric current through the aqueous solution of sodium chloride, the
following reactions take place:
At the cathode: Both Na+ and H+ ions are attracted by the cathode but neither is
actually deposited. On the other hand, water molecules react with the electrons
available at the cathode producing hydrogen gas:
2 H2O + 2e- → H2 + 2OH-
At the anode: Both Cl- and OH- ions are attracted by the anode but it is only Cl- ions
which get deposited there as:
2Cl- - 2e- → 2Cl

2Cl → Cl2
Therefore, the overall reaction is
2 H2O + 2Cl- → H2 + Cl2 + 2OH-
If we include the inactive Na+ ions by adding them to both sides, the overall reaction is
2Na+ + 2 H2O + 2Cl- → H2 + Cl2 + 2OH- + 2Na+
Since both hydrogen gas and chlorine gas get liberated at their respective electrodes, the
residual solution becomes rich in Na+ and OH- ions. Consequently the residual solution
becomes alkaline. Such a solution on evaporation produce solid sodium hydroxide.
(c) Mechanism of electrolysis of aqueous copper sulphate solution using copper
electrodes:
When copper electrodes are used in electrolysis, the anode is attacked by anions so that
it starts dissolving. The process is represented as follows:
CuSO4 → Cu2+ + SO42-
H2O ⇌ H+ + OH-
At cathode: On passing electric current both Cu2+ and H+ ions move towards cathode.
However, Cu2+ ions gets liberated at cathode as
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
At anode: Both OH- and SO42- ions move towards anode but none of the ions get
liberated. Rather the copper electrode itself starts dissolving by losing electrons.
Cu → Cu2+ + 2e-
Therefore, in this electrolysis copper is deposited at cathode from solution and an
equivalent amount of copper from the anode dissolves in solution forming Cu2+ ions
Difference between electrolytic cell and electrochemical cell
Electrolytic cell Electrochemical cell

Electrical energy is converted into Chemical energy is converted into
chemical energy in the cell electrical energy in the cell
Ions are produced at both electrodes Ions are discharged only on the cathode
Anode is positive electrode and Anode is negative while cathode is

cathode is negative electrode positive electrode
Both the electrodes are present in the The electrodes are present in different
same compartment compartments
Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis
Faraday’s First law: The mass of the substance liberated or deposited or dissolved at an
electrode during the electrolysis of an electrolyte is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolyte.
Mathematically Faraday First law is written as
m= Atomic weight x c x t
Valency x 96500
Exercise:
1. Answer the following questions based on the cell given:
0.6V
(a) The cell voltage is _______________________

(b) On the diagram show the direction of electron flow.
(c) On the diagram label the anode & cathode.
(d) Name a suitable salt for each half cell.
(e) Name a suitable salt for the salt bridge.
(f) Give the oxidation half reaction.
(g) Give the reduction half reaction.
(h) Give the overall balanced reaction for the cell.
(i) Which electrode is decreasing in mass?
2. Define the following terms: anode, cathode, salt bridge

3. What is the function of a salt bridge?
4. Define electrochemical cell
5. What is Galvanic cell? Explain the construction and working of the galvanic cell?
6. Explain Faraday’s First law of electrolysis?
7. What is an electrochemical series? How does it help us in predicting whether a redox
reaction is feasible in a given direction or not?
8. What does positive value of E0 cell in case of cell like Zn; Zn2+ // Cu2+; Cu indicate?
9. Sketch the galvanic cell based on the following overall reaction. Show the direction of
electron flow and identify the cathode and anode and give the standard line notation for
each cell.
(a) Cu2+ + Mg ⇌ Mg2+ + Cu (b)Zn + Ag+ ⇌ Zn2+ + Ag
10. Describe in shorthand notation a galvanic cell for which the cell reaction is
(a) Cu(s) + 2Fe3+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq)
(b) Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
(c) Pb2+(aq) + Cd(s) → Pb(s) + Cd2+(aq)
11. Write the anode and cathode reactions for a galvanic cell that utilizes the reaction
Ni + 2 Fe3+ → Ni2+ + 2 Fe2+
12. For the cell shown below:

Zn(s); ZnSO4 (aq) // CuSO4 (aq); Cu (s)
(a) Write the cathode, anode and overall reaction.
(b) Calculate the standard cell potential if standard state reduction potential for Cu2+; Cu
and Zn; Zn2+ are +0.34 V and -0.76 V respectively.
13. Consider the following reaction taking place in a galvanic cell?
2Cr(s) + 3Cu2+ (aq) → 3Cu(s) + 2Cr3+ (aq)
(a) Write the reaction taking place at each electrode
(b) Write the cell in in usual notation
(c) Calculate the standard emf of a cell
14. Calculate E cell of the following cell:

(a) Zn; Zn2+ // Cu2+; Cu (c) Zn; Zn2+ // Ag+; Ag
(b) Cu; Cu2+ // Ag+;Ag (d) Fe;Fe2+ // Cu2+; Cu
15. The reduction potentials of Cu/Cu2+ (aq) and Ni/Ni2+ (aq) are +0.337 V and -0.25 V
respectively. Calculate the emf of the cell
16. A copper wire is dipped in AgNO3 solution kept in beaker A and a silver wire is dipped in
solution of CuSO4 kept in beaker B. if standard electrode potential for Cu2+ + 2e-→Cu is
+0.34 V and that for Ag+ + e- → Ag is +0.80 V, predict in which beaker the ions will get
reduced.
17. A current of 0.965 A is passed through an aqueous solution of AgNO3 for 10 min during
electrolysis. Calculate the mass of Ag deposited at the Cathode.
18. Calculate the mass of hydrogen evolved by passing a current of 0.5 A for 40 min through
acidulated water?
19. A current of 2 A was passed through a solution of copper sulphate for 16 min and 5 sec.
As a result 0.6366 g of copper was deposited. What is the atomic weight of copper?
Valency of copper is +2
20. A 9.65 amp current is passed through molten AlCl3 for 1 min 40 sec during electrolysis.
The mass of Al deposited is 0.09 g at the cathode. What is the valency of Al?
21. Calculate the current in amperes required to deposit electrolytically 10 g Ag in 2 hrs
from Ag NO3 aqueous solution
22. How much time is required for current of 2A to decompose electrolytically 18 g of
water? Valency of water is +2
23. How many grams of chlorine can be produced by the electrolysis of molten NaCl by a
current of 10 A for 5 min?
24. How many grams of oxygen are liberated by the electrolysis of water after passing
0.0565 A for 185 sec?
25. What current in ampere will be required to liberate 10 g of chlorine from sodium
chloride solution in one hour?
26. Calculate the mass of a metal deposited from its salt solution by a current of 0.2 A in 50
min. Atomic weight of metal is 80.
27. What is the difference between a galvanic cell and electrolytic cell?
28. Complete the following statements:
(a) The current is taken to flow from cathode to _____________________ in a galvanic cell.
(b) The electrode connected to the +ve terminal of battery in electrolytic cell is called
____________________
(c) The ion deposited at the _______________ is called cation and the ion deposited at anode
in electrolysis is called ___________________
(d) Oxidation is the process that involves_________________________________
(e) The amount of any substance deposited during electrolysis is ___________________to the
quantity of electricity passed.
(f) In the reaction, Zn + Cu2+ + SO42- → Zn2+ + Cu + SO42-, zinc act as___________________
agent but Cu2+ act as ___________________ agent
(g) In electrochemical cell, anode is given _____________sign while cathode is given
__________ sign
(h) In electrochemical cell, the electrode where oxidation occurs is called_______________
whereas the electrode where reduction occur is called____________________
(i) The electrode carrying _________________charge in an electrolytic cell is called anode
(j) The electrode carrying negative charge in an electrolytic cell is called _______________
(k) _________________ is liberated at cathode during electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride.
(l) _________________ is liberated at cathode during electrolysis of aqueous copper sulphate
using copper electrode.
Valency of Elements and Ions
Valency Elements Cations Anions
Valency = 0 Group VIII elements
Helium, Neon, Argon,
Krypton, Xenon and Radon
Valency = 1 Group I & VII H+ Hydrogen ion Cl- Chloride ion

Monvalent Metals: Lithium, Sodium, Li+ Lithium ion Br- Bromide ion
Potassium Na+ Sodium ion F - Fluoride ion
Nonmetals: Hydrogen, K+ Potassium ion I- Iodide ion
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Ag + Silver ion -
NO3 Nitrate ion
Iodine Cu+ Cuprous ion
OH- Hydroxide ion
Hg + Mercurous ion -
NH4+ Ammonium ion HCO3 Bicarbonate ion
HSO3- Bisulphate ion
MnO4- Permanganate ion
ClO3- Chlorate ion
AlO2 - Aluminate ion
NO2- Nitrite ion
CH3COO- Acetate ion
Valency = 2 Group II & VI Be2+ Beryllium ion O2- Oxide ion

Divalent Metals: Beryllium, Mg2+ Magnesium ion S2- Sulphide ion
Magnesium, Calcium, Ca2+ Calcium ion SO42- Sulphate ion
Strontium, Barium Ba2+ Barium ion C2O42- Oxalate ion
Nonmetals: Oxygen, Sulphur Sr2+ Strontium ion 2-
CO3 Carbonate ion
Ni2+ Nickel ion
SO32- Sulphite ion
Fe2+ Ferrous ion
Cu2+ Cupuric ion O22- Peroxide ion
Sn2+ Stannous ion MnO42- Manganate ion
CrO42- Chromate ion
S2O3 2- Thiosulphate ion
Valency = 3 Group III & V Al3+ Aluminium ion N3- Nitride ion
Trivalent Metals: Aluminium, Boron, Sb3+ Antimony ion PO43- Phosphate ion
Gallium, Indium As3+ Arsenic ion P3- Phosphide ion
Nonmetals: Nitrogen, Bi 3+ Bismuth ion BO33- Borate ion
Phosphorous, Arsenic, Fe3+ Ferric ion
Antinomy
Valency = 4 Group IV Sn4+ Stannic ion

Tetravalent Nonmetals: Carbon, Silicon, Pt4+ Platinum ion
Germanium
Valency = 5 Group V
Pentavalent Nonmetals: Phosphorous,
Arsenic, Antinomy

CHEM1100 Notes-Modified

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Al Musanna College of Technology

Solids, Liquid, Gas

Solid Liquid Gas

Molecule of an element: contains two or more atoms of the same element

Molecule of a compound: contains two or more atoms of the different elements

Neutral Negatively Charged Positively Charged

6 protons 5 protons 6 protons

Physical Change Chemical Change

Atomic Number (Z): No. of protons or no. of electrons in an atom

Mass Number (A): The no. of protons & neutrons in an atom

2. Define the terms solid, liquids and gases with example.

5. Write the different temperatures at which states of matter changes

9. Fill in the blanks:

Atoms or Ion of the

11. Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixtures

12. Classify the following into physical and chemical changes?

Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is given by

 K energy level, n = 1 ,Maximum number of electrons in K energy level = 2n2 =2 x (1)2

 L energy level ,n = 2,Maximum number of electrons in L energy level = 2n2 =2 x 22

 M energy level, n = 3,Maximum number of electrons in M energy level = 2n2 = 2 x (3) 2

 N energy level, n = 4,Maximum number of electrons in N energy level = 2n2 = 2 x (4) 2

Electronic configuration (or Electron arrangement)

Shapes of the orbital:

Shape name: Dumbbell

Rules of writing the Electronic Configuration:

Order of Filling Sublevels with Electrons

Incorrect; electrons must spin in opposite directions

Correct; the electrons have opposite spins

Rules of writing the electronic configuration:

Principal quantum number

2. The various orbitals are written in order of increasing energies.

The electronic configurations of some elements to illustrate the above rules

1s2 2s2 2p1 or

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

1s2 2s2 2p2 or

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

N (Z=7) 1s2 2s2 2p3 or

O (Z=8) 1s2 2s2 2p4 or

F (Z=9) 1s2 2s2 2p5 or

Ne (Z=10) 1s2 2s2 2p6 or

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 or

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s

(ix) Similarly, the configuration of the seven elements would be

Mg (Z= 12) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

K (Z= 19) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

Sc (Z= 21) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

Exception looking configurations:

The electronic configurations of these elements are expected to be as follows:

Cr (Z=24) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4

Cu (Z= 29) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d9

But the actual configurations are:

Cr (Z=24) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

Cu (Z= 29) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

Electronic Configurations of Ions:

14. Why there is no 2d and 3f orbital?

27. An atom of an element contains 29 electrons and 35 neutrons. Calculate

Classification of periodic table on the basis of

 Period 1 contains only the elements H and He

 A vertical column on the Periodic Table is called a group.

 Elements in the same Group:

 Group II A - ALKALINE EARTH METALS

 Group B - Transition Metals