nor a fixed volume, as their particles are widely spaced
I. REVIEW OF BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space.The space occupied by matter is its volume. Mass
is the amount of matter in an object.
When matter underwent change and there is no change
in the composition, we say that physical change
happened. On the other hand, chemical change
happened if there is/are new product(s) that was/were
formed.
Here are some processes that bring physical change:
Melting, freezing, evaporation, condensation,
sublimation, deposition, tearing, cutting and others.
There may be a change of phase or in size and shape,
but as long as there is no new compound form, then
the process is only a physical change.
Here are some processes that bring chemical change:
Corrosion, rusting, tarnishing, digestion, photosynthesis,
fermentation, polymerization, combustion or burning,
cooking and others. As long as there is a new
compound form, then a chemical change has occurred.
Some manifestations that a chemical change has
occurred includes, change in color, formation of
bubbles or gas, spark, change in smell or taste, change
in temperature.
Oxidation is a chemical process where oxygen is a
participant or reactant.
Classification of Matter
Matter is classified into two: Pure Substance and
Mixture
Pure substance could be element, the simplest form of
matter; or compound which is composed of two or
more elements in definite proportion.
Mixture is composed of two or more different
compounds. Mixture can be homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
A homogeneous mixture has only one phase – you
cannot see the individual components. A solution of salt
in water (we call that brine), is an example of
homogeneous mixture.
On the contrary, in heterogeneous mixture, you can
see the individual components. Some examples are fruit
salad, aquarium, sand and pebbles, salt and pepper.
Properties of Matter
Extrinsic (or extensive) properties of matter are those
properties that changes as the size of matter change.
They depend on the amount of matter. Examples are
length, volume, mass.
Intrinsic (or intensive) properties of matter are those
that do not depend on the amount of matter. Whatever
the amount is these properties remain the same.
Examples are density, temperature, specific gravity,
color.
Phases of Matter
The three most common phases of matter on Earth
are solids, liquids, and gases. Solids have a fixed
shape and volume, with particles packed closely
together. Liquids, on the other hand, have a fixed
volume but not a fixed shape, as their particles are
more loosely packed. Gases have neither a fixed shape
apart.
In addition to these three phases, there are other states
of matter that are less commonly found on Earth. These
include plasma and Bose-Einstein
condensate. Plasma is an ionized gas that is often
found in stars and lightning bolts. Bose-Einstein
condensate is a state of matter that occurs at
extremely low temperatures, close to absolute zero.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND PERIODIC TABLE OF
ELEMENTS
Atom is the basic unit of an element. It is the building
block of matter.
Atomic Number (Z) - is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Mass Number (A) - is the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus.
Consider the isotopic symbol:
where: A – mass number; Z – atomic number; X –
symbol of any element
For neutral atoms: no. of protons (p) = no. of electrons
(e)
*the number of neutrons (n) is calculated using: n = A –
Z
For ions: no. of protons (p) is NOT EQUAL to the no. of
electrons (e)
Cation replacement reactions usually involve metals
since metals form cations (positively charged ions). For
example, zinc (Zn) is a metal whose ion has a positive
charge of +2.
Anion replacement reactions usually involve non-
metals since non-metals usually form anions (negatively
charged ions).
An element is composed of several atoms of the same
type. For example, the element carbon is made up of
carbon atoms only. There are 118 elements that were
discovered. Some are man-made or synthetic.
Three types of elements
Metals, which are elements on the left side of the
periodic table that have high conductivity, luster, and
malleability. Examples are sodium, calcium, and iron.
Nonmetals, which are elements on the right side of the
periodic table that have low conductivity, dullness, and
brittleness. Examples are carbon, chlorine, and oxygen.
Metalloids, which are elements that have properties of
both metals and nonmetals. They are usually found
along the zigzag line in the periodic table. Examples are
silicon, boron, and arsenic.
Periodic Law states that the properties of the elements
are periodic functions of their atomic numbers. When
the elements are arranged according to increasing
atomic mass, the chemical and physical properties of
the elements occur periodically.
Trends on Periodic Table of Elements
Atomic radius decreases as you move from left to right
across a period (row) of the periodic table.
Ionization energy: Ionization energy increases as you
move from left to right across a period of the periodic
table.
Electronegativity: Electronegativity increases as you
move from left to right across a period of the periodic
table.
Melting and boiling points: Melting and boiling points
generally increase as you move from top to bottom of a
group (column) of the periodic table.
Metallic character increases as you move from top to
bottom of a group of the periodic table.
Density: Density generally increases as you move from
top to bottom of a group and from left to right across a
period.
Reactivity: Reactivity generally increases as you move
from left to right across a period and from top to
bottom of a group.
Color: The color of an element's compounds can vary
depending on the element's electron configuration.
In chemical bonding, it is the electron in the outermost
shell, or the valence electron that participates. The
electronic configuration of the atom tells how
electrons are arranged in shells, subshells and orbitals.
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bonding is the process by which atoms
combine to form molecules.
Three main types of chemical bonding
Ionic bonding occurs when one atom donates electrons
to another atom. A more electronegative element will
attract electron(s) from a lesser electronegative
element.
Covalent bonding occurs when two atoms share
electrons. A more electronegative element will attract
electron(s) from a lesser electronegative element.
Metallic bonding occurs when metal atoms share
electrons in a sea of electrons.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Chemical reactions happen all around us, naturally or
induced. It is represented in a chemical equation.
Reactant(s) ----------→ Product(s)
Chemical Equations
Combination Reaction (Synthesis)
A + B → AB
Decomposition
AB → A + B
Single Replacement
AB + C →CB + A
Double Decomposition
AB + CD →AD + BC
HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons are molecules that contain only carbon
and hydrogen. They are organic compounds. All organic
compounds contain carbon. Other elements are
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur.
Hydrocarbons can be saturated (single bond, alkane,
between carbon atoms) or unsaturated (double bonds,
alkene, or triple bonds, alkyne). They can be aliphatic
(straight chain) or cyclic (like benzene).
Here are some aliphatic, saturated hydrocarbons:
Organic vs Inorganic Compounds
SOLUTION
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
components. Being homogeneous, you can observe
only 1 phase in a system. A solution is composed of the
solvent and the solute.
A solute is the substance that is dissolved in a
solution. A solvent is the substance that dissolves the
solute particles in a solution.
Alloy, mixture of metals, could also be a solution. In
most cases, we can refer those mixtures as colloid.
Colloid has dispersing medium (larger amount) and
dispersed phase.
A suspension is also a mixture, but the solute is not
dissolved in the solvent. The solute settles to the
bottom.
Three types of solution
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of
solute that a solvent can normally dissolve.
On the other hand, unsaturated solution contains less
than the maximum amount of solute that the solvent
can normally dissolve. Supersaturated solution
contains more than the maximum amount of solute
that the solvent can normally dissolve.
Slow-cooling creates a crystalline structure, while
fast cooling creates an amorphous structure.
The molecules of crystalline structure are neatly
arranged, with regular, repeating pattern. Solids with
crystalline structures have sharp, definite melting point
and diffracts x-rays. Examples of solids with crystalline
structure are ionic compounds, diamond, graphite.
On the other hand, the molecules of amorphous solid
are randomly arranged. Their melting point has wide
range. Examples of amorphous solids are plastics, glass,
rubbers. This crystalline and amorphous structure plays
a great role in the physical property of materials.
Viscosity is the resistance of fluids to flow. A viscous
liquid has a stronger intermolecular force than
non viscous liquid. Temperature has an effect on
viscosity.
Surface tension allows the surface of a liquid to resist
external force due to cohesive nature of the molecules,
allowing the liquid to shrink into minimum surface area.
Phase Change Processes
Freezing – liquid turns to solid by removing heat energy
(cooling)
Melting – solid turns to liquid by adding heat energy
Vaporization or Evaporation – liquid turns to gas
Condensation – gas turns to liquid
Sublimation – solid turns to gas without passing the
liquid phase
Deposition – gas turns to solid without passing the
liquid phase
Boiling point of a liquid is that temperature where
the atmospheric pressure is equal to the pressure
of the vapor the liquid.
At boiling point, liquid is being turned into its vapor
state. The vapor can be readily turn into liquid
once heat energy is reduced. But there is a point
that substances in its gaseous form will no longer
be liquid again. You call that as the critical point of
the substance.
THERMOCHEMISTRY
Thermochemistry deals with the heat energy
involved in a chemical reaction. Chemical reactions
often involve changes in energy due to the
breaking and formation of bonds.
Reactions in which energy is released are
exothermic reactions, while those that take in heat
energy are endothermic.
System – any part of the universe that you want to
study. The system is separated from its
surroundings or environment by a boundary.
Three (3) types of system
1. Open system - there is an exchange of mass and
energy
2. Closed system – there is an exchange of energy
3. Isolated system – there is no exchange of energy
nor mass
Heat - energy in transit to or from a
thermodynamic system due to temperature
difference between the system and its
surroundings. There is a flow of energy from hot to
cold system or body. Until the temperature
between the system and the surroundings become
equal. In other words, until thermal equilibrium is
achieved.
Heat Energy (also thermal energy) – the result of
movement of atoms, molecules or ions in solids
liquid or gases.
There are 3 ways by which heat energy is
transferred
1. Conduction – transfer of heat energy in solids;
there is a direct contact between 2 or more objects
2. Convection – transfer of heat energy by a bulk
movement of molecules within liquid and gases.
3. Radiation - transfer of energy via
electromagnetic waves. Night visions uses this
principle of heat transfer. Thermal scanners also
transfer heat by radiation.
Temperature – a parameter that describes the
coldness or hotness of a system or object
Thermometer – a device that measures
temperature
Internal energy – the energy associated with the
random motion of molecules. The greater the
amount of substance, the greater is its internal
energy.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two
bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some
third body, then they are also in equilibrium with
each other.
First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
converted from one form to another. In an isolated
system, energy is conserved.
Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the
total entropy of a system either increases or
remains constant in any spontaneous process; it
never decreases.
Units for Energy
Joule (J) is equal to the work done by a force of 1
Newton acting through 1 meter.
Calorie is defined as the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 g water by
1oC.
N·m or Kg·m2/s2 = Joule
1 calorie = 4.184 J
BTU (British Thermal Unit) is the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 lb water by
1oF.
Specific heat is the amount of energy needed to
raise 1 g of substance or material by 1oC. If that
particular substance is water, then, we call that
heat energy as calorie.
Molar heat capacity is the amount of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of the substance
by 1oC.
The amount of heat energy released or absorbed in
a chemical reaction or physical change is called
calorimetry.
CHEMICAL LABORATORY
A chemical laboratory is a place where you carry
out experiments for proving hypotheses and for
researches.
Given below are safety guidelines while working
in the laboratory
1. All experiments must be done in a room where
air is flowing freely and with proper ventilation.
2. Read and follow laboratory procedures as stated
in the manual.
3. Always have someone with you in the laboratory.
Avoid working alone in the laboratory.
4. Always wear personal protective
equipment/garment.
a. Laboratory gown – to protect oneself from any
chemical spill.
b. Mouth mask – to avoid sniffing obnoxious odors
that will be generated from mixing chemicals or
the chemical itself
c. Eye goggles or face shields - to protect the face
and eyes from any chemicals that might spatter.
d. Gloves, chemical resistant – to protect hands
from chemicals.
5. If one has long hair, it must be tied back or
confined.
6. Open-toed footwear (sandals) are not allowed.
7. Proper behavior must always be observed while
inside the laboratory. Horse-playing is strictly
prohibited while inside the laboratory.
8. Eating and drinking are not allowed while inside
the laboratory.
9. Be able to know the location of safety apparatus
like the emergency shower, eyewash station and
fire extinguisher and be able to know their
operation.
10. Read labels carefully
11. Never pipette anything by mouth. Even if it is
just water, one is not sure how clean the pipette is.
12. Check glasswares for cracks and chips before
using them. Cracks could cause the glassware to
fail during use and cause serious injury to anybody.
13. Keep the work area clear of all materials except
those needed for working.
14. For any equipment failure, report immediately
to the teacher and do not try to fix it yourself.
15. Treat all chemicals as if they were hazardous.
Do not taste or sniff chemicals.
16. Fuming and volatile chemicals should be
handled inside the fume hood to prevent
inhalations of the chemicals.
17. Do not haphazardly mix chemicals. Pay
attention to the order in which chemicals are to be
added to each other and do not deviate from the
procedures.
18. Read and follow all “CAUTIONS AND
PRECAUTIONS” in the written procedure.
19. Do not leave an on-going experiment
unattended.
20. Wipe spills at once. For large chemical spills,
call at once the attention of the teacher and keep
away from the area.
21. Follow the procedure for disposing chemicals
and solids.
22. Clean up your work area before leaving.
23. Wash hands after performing experiments.
Here are some common symbols in the laboratory
ENERGY
Energy is often defined as the capacity to do work.
Work is the product of force and displacement.
Heat is the transfer of energy from hot to cold
environment until thermal equilibrium is achieved.
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy of motion.
KE = ½ mv2 where m is the mass of an object and v Nuclear reaction a process in which the nucleus of
is its velocity. an atom is changed by being split apart or joined
Potential Energy (PE) is the energy of position. with the nucleus of another atom.

PE = mgh where m is the mass of an object, g is the 2 Notable Types of Nuclear Reaction
acceleration due to gravity constant equal to 9.8 1. Nuclear Fission is the splitting of a heavy atom
m/s2, and h is the height. into two lighter ones, releasing huge amounts of
Activation energy is the energy needed in order energy and neutrons.
for a chemical reaction to proceed. The lower the * A nuclear chain reaction is a series of nuclear
activation energy, the faster the reaction can occur. fissions, each initiated by a neutron produced in a
In exothermic reaction, the energy is released to preceding fission. A nuclear chain reaction can lead
the surroundings, that’s why the environment gets to a nuclear explosion if not controlled.
hot, as in the case of combustion or burning. * Critical mass is the minimum amount of
In endothermic reaction, the energy from the fissionable material that is needed to maintain a
surroundings is absorbed by the reactants – the nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass depends
surroundings become cooler. upon the material’s nuclear properties, density,
shape, purity, enrichment, temperature and
ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY surroundings.
An electrochemical cell is a device that generates 2. Nuclear Fusion a nuclear reaction in which
electricity by chemical reaction. atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse to form a
A galvanic (or voltaic) cell converts chemical heavier nucleus with the release of energy.
reaction to electricity. A collection of galvanic cells Other Important Types of Nuclear Reactions
wired together is called battery.
ALPHA DECAY - Nuclei with mass numbers greater
On the other hand, an electrolytic cell converts than 200 tend to undergo alpha decay – a process
electrical energy to chemical energy. Both operates in which a 4He nucleus, commonly referred to as
on the principle of electron transfer. Electrolytic an alpha particle (42α) is liberated from the parent
cell is the opposite of galvanic cell. nucleus.
Here are some examples of galvanic cells, their BETA DECAY - occurs when a neutron is converted
uses and whether they are rechargeable or not: into a proton, which is accompanied by the
• Alkaline: Flashlights, small appliances. Not emission of a beta particle (high-energy electron).
rechargeable GAMMA DECAY/EMISSION - occurs when an
• Lithium ion: Laptop computers, cell phones, excited nucleus (often produced from the
digital music players. Rechargeable radioactive decay of another nucleus) returns to its
ground state, which is accompanied by the
• Lead-acid: Automobiles. Rechargeable emission of a high energy photon.
• NiCad: Portable consumer electronics.
Rechargeable
• Nickel metal hydride (NiMH): Hybrid vehicles.
Rechargeable
A fuel cell is galvanic cell that produces electricity
by converting the chemical energy of a fuel directly
into electricity without burning the fuel.
Other types of battery and fuel cells produce
electricity through chemical reactions that are very
similar. However, the source of energy used for the
chemical reaction is different. In simple terms,
batteries produce electricity using stored energy
while fuel cells generate power with hydrogen-rich
fuel.
Photovoltaic cell or solar cell is an electrical device
that converts light energy into electricity by
photovoltaic effect.
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
Nuclear Chemistry is a branch of Chemistry dealing
with the reactions involving the change in the
nucleus of an atom.
In the Philippines, we have our one and only
nuclear power plant, The Bataan Nuclear Power
Plant (BNPP). The construction began in 1976, with
a cost of about US$2.3 billion. It was about to be
operated in 1986 when the accident in Ukraine
happen. There was a fear that the same thing will
happen in BNPP, so the President, Ma. Corazon
Aquino, did not allow its operation. Presently, the
BNPP is being maintained by the National Power
Corporation and there are recommendations to
put it in operation.
Ukraine nuclear plant accident, world’s worst
nuclear accident: The Chernobyl disaster began on
26 April 1986 with the explosion of the No. 4
reactor of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near
the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR,
close to the border with the Byelorussian SSR, in
the Soviet Union.
Fukushima nuclear disaster: The March 11, 2011,
Great East Japan Earthquake and tsunami sparked
a humanitarian disaster in northeastern Japan and
initiated a severe nuclear accident at the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant. Three of the six
reactors at the plant sustained severe core damage
and released hydrogen and radioactive materials