CHEMICAL EQUATION

The word chemical Reaction is used to describe the interaction between reactants to
produce a product. In a reaction, one or more substances (the reactants) change into one or more
new substances (the product). In writing chemical reactions, we must separate the reactants from
the products by writing an arrow ( ), which means yields, gives or react to produce.

Reactants Products

In a chemical equation, the arrow separates the formulas of the reactants (on the left)
from the formulas of the products (on the right). For example the chemical equation for the
burning of carbon.

Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide

C + O2 CO2

The above equation which shows just the formulas of the reactants and products are
called skeleton equations. A skeleton equation is a chemical equation that does not indicate the
relative amounts of the reactants and products involved in the reaction. Writing a skeleton
equation with the correct formulas for the reactants and products is an important first step in
obtaining a correct chemical equation. E.g

Methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2 O

The physical state of the substance can also be indicated in writing chemical equation.
Usually (s) is used for solid (l) for liquid (g) for gas and for aqueous solution (aq). E.g

Fe(s) + O2 (l) Fe2O3 (s)

It should be recall from John Dalton atomic theory that as reactants are converted to products,
the bonds holding the atoms together are broken and new bonds are formed. It is important to
note that the atoms themselves are neither created nor destroyed; they are merely rearranged.
This part of Dalton’s theory explains the law of conservation of mass which states that in any
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physical or chemical change, matter is neither created nor destroyed. The atoms in the product
are the same atoms that were in the reactants, they are just arranged differently.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATOM.

• Democritus, a Greek philosopher was the first person to discovered and developed the
atom in 400 BC. He was the first person to use the word atom. He called his discovery the
history of the universe.
 • John Dalton in 1800’s AD first to adopt Democritus discovery into modern atomic theory
and also the Dalton Atomic Model.

• J.J Thomson in 1890’s AD discovered the existence of an electron and the Thomsom
atomic model he used the cathode ray tube in his discovery of the electron. He also
discovered that the electron is negatively charged particle.

• Ernest Rutherford in 1910’s discovered the nucleus of an atom and the Rutherford atomic
model also called the planetary model

• Niel Bohr in 1910’s discovered the Bohr atomic model also called the Rutherford – Bohr
model

• Erwin Schrodinger in 1920’s discovered the Schrodinger atomic model also called the
cloud model. He used the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to arrived at the present
atomic model being in use today.

Periodicity
Periodicity can be defined as the repeating patterns in the properties of elements as they are
arranged in the periodic table which is due to the periodic repetition of the electronic
configuration and the organization of electrons in their shell or energy level.

The periodic table is organized based on the atomic numbers and valence electrons. And as one
moves across the periodic table from left to right in the periodic table the atomic number
increases by one.

Periods and groups:

The periodic table is divided into periods and groups. The periods are the horizontal row while
the groups are the vertical row.

It should be noted that elements within the same period have the same number of shells and
elements within the same groups have similar valence electrons and show similar chemical
properties.
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Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell and core electrons are the inner
electrons of an elements.

Elements in group 1 for example have one electron in the outermost shell (valence electrons) and
are capable of losing one electrons to become positively charged.
 Periodic trend

So many properties of elements show periodic trends across the periodic table. Some of the
trends are;

 Atomic radius: the atomic radius decreases from left to right across the periodic table due
to increasing nuclear charge and increases from top to bottom within the same group.
 Ionization Energy: this is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
Ionization energy usually increases from left to right across the periodic table and
decreases from top to bottom within the group.
 Electronegativity: this is the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in a
chemical reaction. This tendency increases from left to right in the periodic table and also
decreases from top to bottom within the group.
 Metallic Character: this is the tendency of an element to show metallic character like good
conductor of heat and electricity, luster and malleability.

Structure of solids

Structure of solids is defined as the arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a solid material

Types of structures in solids

 Crystalline solids: these types of solid have a highly ordered and repeating arrangement of
atom, ions or molecules in a three dimensional lattice structure. Eg of these types of
structure is diamond, sodium hydroxide
 Armorphous solids: These types of structure have a disordered atomic arrangement.
Armorphous solid do not have a definite atomic arrangement. E.g is glass, rubber and
plastics.
 Polycrystalline solids: this types of solid is made up of numerous small crystalline regions
called grains and each grain has a well defined crystalline structure.eg of Polycrystalline
solids are metals and ceramics.

Intermolecular Forces
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Intermolecular Forces are the attractive or repulsive forces the exists between molecules.

Types of Intermolecular Forces

 London dispersion forces ( Van der waal’s force). They are the weakest type of forces
existing between molecules.
  Dipole-Dipole moment: these types of weak Intermolecular Forces exist between polar
molecules where the positive ends of one molecule attract to the negative end of another
molecule resulting in a dipole-dipole interaction.
 Hydrogen bonding: This is a specialized type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs when
a hydrogen atom is bonded highly electronegative atoms like Nitrogen and Oxygen where
hydrogen develop a partial positive charge while the electronegative develop a partial
negative charge leading to a strong dipole-dipole interaction between hydrogen atom and
the electronegative atom. Hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of
water.
 Ion – dipole interaction: These types of interaction occur between an ion and partially
charged molecules. The positive end of the negatively charged ion is attracted to the
negative end of the positively charged ion of the polar molecule.
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