Understanding The Laws of Nature: Weighing Helps

Classroom Experiments
Practical
Experiments
in the
classroom
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
Weighing Helps
Understanding the Laws of Nature
Contents
Preface
3
History
8
Physics
Density of solid bodies from volume and weight measurement 6
Density of solids (buoyancy method) 7
Temperature dependence of the density of water 9
Density of air 11
Density of gases 12
Buoyancy in gases 13
Density of liquids 15
Force and opposing force 16
Deflection force 17
Resisting force in an airstream 20
Forces on an airfoil 22
Dependence of the magnetic field strength of a coil
on the current intensity 25
Soft iron in a magnetic field 26
Chemistry
How much sodium bicarbonate
does an effervescent tablet contain? 28
Determination of fat in soya and nuts 29
Determination of chalk in rock and soil samples 30
Determination of the water of crystallization in salts 31
Thermolysis of salts 33
Synthesis of copper sulfide 35
Molar mass determination of liquified gas 37
Rate of evaporation 39
Homogeneous catalysis: The decomposition of H2O2 41
Biology
Transpiration in plants 45
Intake of water vapor by lichens 47
Water intake and loss in mosses 48
Water and ash content of different plant organs 49
Concerning alcoholic fermentation 51
1
Preface
Descriptive experiments in the classroom and independent experimentation in practical

courses: for the natural sciences, these continue to be those components which impart the
essential flesh and blood to theoretical studies of natural laws. A concept illustrated by
experiment is not only easier to convert into abstract formulae, but can also be better retained
in the pupil’s memory.
With the aid of an electronic balance, you can demonstrate the meaning of the laws, formulae
and phenomena in physics, chemistry and biology in a most impressive manner.
Our principal concern has been to ensure that the individual experiments can be set up with
very little effort and with simple resources. In addition, we have tested each individual experi-
ment a number of times. During demonstration of an experiment, the simple handling of the
electronic balances demands only your occasional attention thus enabling you to concentrate
fully on the instruction. We would ask you to observe the general safety directions outlined
below.
It remains for us to wish you every success and a great deal of enjoyment.
METTLER TOLEDO GmbH

CH-8606 Greifensee
General safety directions This brochure shows examples of how practical experiments may be set up for teaching
purposes. The set-up, materials and substances used, as well as the specified quantities have
been selected purely for purposes of illustration. All responsibility for the set-up and correct
performance of the experiments is borne solely by the person who carries them out.
METTLER TOLEDO disclaims any liability with respect to the above.
The experiments should be carried out only by persons qualified to do so or under the super-
vision of such qualified persons.
The operating instructions for all the equipment used (precision scales, Bunsen burners,
wind generator etc.) must be observed.
Various substances mentioned in the experiments may be hazardous, toxic or explosive.

Use of such substances may also be prohibited or restricted by law or by internal school
regulations, or be subject to rigorous (safety) specifications. Responsibility for using all these
substances and observing the applicable specifications is borne solely by the user. All safety
specifications and directions must be observed.
3
History
Metrology, Accurate measuring equipment is not only the basis of scientific research, but also plays a
the art of measurement very prominent role in our lives in general. It is important for all of us in day-to-day events.
People who can measure length, time and weight accurately are trustworthy. People who are
authorized to determine mass and weight have power.
Whereas time and linear measure could be derived biologically or physically, the establish-
ment of weight units was random. Thus countries, princedoms and towns had all their own
weight units well into modern times.
It was not until the Meter Convention in 1875, now signed by over 50 countries, that a stan-
dardized mass and weight system became possible.
Our well known base unit of 1 kilogram corresponds

to the mass of the international prototype kilogram.
This “prototype kilogram” is stored in the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres near Paris
under extremely strict climatic conditions. It is a cylinder
of height 39 mm and diameter 39 mm and is made
of an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium thus
guaranteeing constant mass. National standards are
compared at regular intervals of 25 years with this
prototype kilogram, but not too frequently to ensure that
the prototype kilogram does not become unnecessarily
worn.
The history of the balance or scale goes back a long way. Remains of the oldest known
balances were discovered in a prehistoric grave in Egypt: they have been dated around
5000 years before our time. Single weight stones are known from even earlier times. It can be
assumed that man has been weighing for more than 7000 years.
Cultural history The best known form of balance (or scale) is the equal-arm beam balance. A weighing sam-
ple is compared in proportion 1:1 with standard weights. But simple beam balances with only
one lever or unequal-arm beam balances with a different transmission ratio can frequently be
found in historical drawings. Other important types of balances are, e.g. the weighbridge for
vehicles, the familiar postal scale or spring balances in which the weight force dependent on
gravity is shown on a scale.
The balance is familiar to man not only as one of the most

common and diverse measuring instruments, but also since
time immemorial as a emblem of equality and fair assessment.
The balance or scale thus occupies an equivalent position as
the sword of judgement of the Goddess Justitia as a symbol
of a balanced judgement.
4
Another interesting symbolic use of the balance involves the weighing of
souls of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. Ancient Egyptian mummy
caskets and papyri accompanying the dead contain many representations
of soul weighing, which was used as a means of judgement in the court
of the dead. Depending on the outcome, the soul, shown on the balance
as a small vessel, with the person to be judged standing by, passes to a
god of damnation for destruction or to a god of light for safekeeping.
The soul is weighed with the truth shown in the form of a feather (hiero-
glyphic for truth) on the other weighing pan.
A similar portrayal from the Christian veneration of

saints is that of Saint Michael as the just advocate in
the Last Judgement.
Colloquialisms That something light or even immaterial can have a large weight is shown above all when
someone succeeds in bringing about a weighty decision with a single word. However,
a wrong word can also have severe consequences, But that we do not completely lose our
sense of balance is ensured by a good friend to whom the scales are tipped in our favor:
He may then perhaps give us the following advice “Weigh weighty things up first”. Yet while
people who weigh up every word may generally be clever, they must be regarded as pedantic
contemporaries who are uncomfortable to be with.
5
Physics
Density of solid bodies from volume
and weight measurement
Teaching objective The concepts of mass and density are illustrated with this experiment; it also serves as an
introduction to weighing techniques.
Assignment Calculation of the volume from the dimensions of regularly-shaped solid bodies.
The mass is determined by weighing. The density is calculated from the volume and mass.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

Rectangular, spherical, conical or cylindrical bodies (nonporous)
Length gauges, sliding calipers, micrometer screw gauges
Procedure Each pupil is given a sample and determines the dimensions and calculates the volume.
Then the sample is weighed (under supervision ot the teacher) and subsequently the results
are evaluated.
Evaluation The density is the quotient of mass and volume

m
ρ = V units: g/cm3, kg/m3
In school experiments, the individual samples can be evaluated in succession by all pupils
(or groups of 2 pupils).
Final considerations The relative uncertainty of the result should be estimated by means of an uncertainty
calculation:
– Weighing uncertainties neglectable
– Accuracy of the geometric shape?
– Relative uncertainty of the length measurements?
– Relative uncertainty of the weighing?
Note – The balance only displays the exact mass of the sample, when the sample density is
8000 kg/m3. In the determination of bodies with low density (e.g. styrofoam), a buoyancy
correction must be made according to the formula, otherwise a relative error is incurred.
– With thin wires or sheets of known density, the thickness can be determined by weighing
(copper wire, aluminium foil).
– From the known density of cylindrical or spherical bodies, π can be calculated.
6
Density of solids
(buoyancy method)
Teaching objective This experiment is used to illustrate the concepts of mass, buoyancy and density.
Assignment For irregularly-shaped solid bodies, determination of the volume from the buoyancy and the
mass by weighing. These two quantities are used to calculate the mean density of the body.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g) and a METTLER TOLEDO density kit
alternatively
Beaker with water
Stand with boss and rod
Thin thread
Wide-meshed basket of fine wire
Tweezers
Body of any shape (e.g. screw, key, coin)
Experimental arrangement The empty basket hangs

from a thread in
water without touching
the beaker wall. Thread
Stand Wire basket
Procedure The balance is tared. The body is placed on the weighing pan next to the beaker and its mass
m determined. The body is now placed in the basket using tweezers.
No water must be lost by splashing or remain on the tweezers. Air bubbles around the basket
and the object must be removed. The object experiences the lifting force (buoyancy) FL in an
upward direction and exerts an opposing force F of equal magnitude on the water in a down-
ward direction. The balance displays m~, and F = m~ · g holds.
L
Evaluation ~g
According to Archimedes’ principle FA = Vbody · ρliq · g = m
~
m
Vbody =
ρliq
m~ m
m
and the density ρbody = = = ρliq · ~
Vbody ρliq m
Example: Car wheel nut

Water temperature 20 °C
Mass of nut m = 52.74 g
Buoyancy m ~ = 06.74 g
52.74 g
ρ = 1.00 g/cm3 · = 7.83 g / cm3
6.74 g
7
Physics
Final considerations At 20 °C, the density of water is 0.2% smaller than 1 g/cm3. Even without consideration of the
temperature dependence of the density, the volume and the mean density of even small coins
can be determined to better than 1% uncertainty.
With gold and silver coins, the standard can be calculated if the (mean) density of the alloyed
material is known.
The following applies:
mass volume (mean density)
coin m V ρ
gold, silver mx Vx ρx
residue mR ρR
m = mx + mR
V · ρ = V x · ρ x + (V – Vx ) · ρ R
Vx ρ – ρ R
= or m x / m = …
V ρx – ρR
8
Temperature dependence
of the density of water
Teaching objective The density of water changes with temperature. It attains its greatest density at 4 °C
(anomaly of water).
Assignment The density of water in the temperature range from 0 to 50 °C is determined with the aid of a
specific gravity bottle and a balance. The experimental results should be plotted graphically.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01 g)

Specific gravity bottle 50 or 100 ml, if possible of quartz and with a thermometer equipped
with a taper joint
Beaker 1000 ml
Possibly thermometer 0 to 50°C, graduated in 1/10 or 1/5 degree
Hot plate
Styrofoam board for thermal insulation
Hand towel
Ice cubes
Procedure A styrofoam board is placed on the weighing pan to provide thermal insulation. Make sure the
styrofoam does not overlap the weighing platform for reasons of electrostatic interference.
The balance is tared with the empty specific gravity bottle. The specific gravity bottle is filled
by immersion in the beaker containing the ice water, and the stopper (or the thermometer with
taper joint) inserted under water. The water temperature ϑ is measured.
The specific gravity bottle is then lifted out of the water, dried off and placed on the balance.
The mass m of the water is noted down. The remaining ice is removed from the water, which
is then warmed gently. In the range 0 to 10 °C, measurement of ϑ and m is carried out
approximately every two degrees initially and then later at intervals of approximately 10 de-
grees. The contents of the specific gravity bottle are poured back in the beaker after each
measurement and the water stirred thoroughly.
Evaluation With a specific gravity bottle made of Jena glass (coefficient of linear expansion
α = 3.2 · 10 –6/K) that is calibrated to 50 cm 3 at 20 °C, the following experimental values
should be found:
Temperature Mass Density

ϑ in ºC m in g ρ in g/cm3
0 49.991 0.999 84
2 49.996 0.999 94
4 49.997 0.999 97
6 49.996 0.999 94
8 49.992 0.999 85
10 49.984 0.999 70
20 49.910 0.998 21
30 49.783 0.995 65
40 49.612 0.992 22
50 49.405 0.988 05
9
Physics
Final considerations With specific gravity bottle and balance, the density of a wide variety of liquids, e.g. hexane,
ethanol, chloroform, etc. can be determined.
Note – According to the table, in the temperature interval O to 4 °C the density of water changes by
0.00013 g/cm3, corresponding to 13‰. In the same interval, the volume of Jena glass
changes by 0.04‰, but that of quartz glass seven times less. If the specific gravity bottle is
not made of quartz glass, a volume correction is advisable.
– If the specific gravity bottle is filled with water at about 2 °C, a lowering of the water level
in the capillary of the stopper can be observed on warming. If the specific gravity bottle is
clasped with a warm hand, the contraction occurs within a few seconds.
– The density of water at 20 °C must be measured with particular accuracy as this is the
calibration temperature for burettes, pipettes and measuring cylinders.
It is approximately 2‰ less than that at 4 °C.
10
Density of air
Teaching objective Even air possesses mass and density!
Assignment A flask is evacuated and the density of air determined from the mass and volume of the
evacuated air. The density should be converted to standard temperature and pressure.

Vacuum pump (water pump)
Glass flask with 2 stopcocks approx. 1 liter)
Bucket containing water
Measuring cylinder (1 liter)
Thermometer (water temperature)
Thermometer (room temperature)
Barometer (not adjusted to sea level)
Procedure To simplify the calculations, the water should be at room temperature.

The dry flask filled with air is tared on the balance. It is then evacuated and weighed.
The mass m of the evacuated air is noted.
The flask is then held in the bucket of water, the stopcock opened slowly and water allowed
to enter until the pressure in the flask is the same as the external pressure. The water level in
the flask is then at the same height as the water level in the bucket. The volume V of the water
which entered the flask equals the volume of the evacuated air and can be determined with
a measuring cylinder or by weighing.
Evaluation The density is determined as the quotient of mass and volume
ρ= m in g/dm3 or kg/m3
V
Mass of the evacuated air m in g

Volume of the evacuated air V in dm3
Room temperature θ in ºC
and hence T in K
Air pressure p in mbar
For the density at room temperature
ρ= m
V
and for the standard density
m 1013 mbar T
ρo = · ·
V p 273.1K
(literature value 1.293 kg/m3)
Note – If the volume is measured with a measuring cylinder, the best possible uncertainty is 1%.
– Atmospheric moisture and CO2 content are difficult to correct for; their influence is also
approx. 1%.
11
Physics
Density of gases
Teaching objective This experiment illustrates the density of a gaseous substance.
Assignment The density of a gaseous substance is determined from its volume and mass and converted
to standard temperature and pressure.

Conical flask (approx. 1 liter)
Measuring cylinder (approx. 1 liter)
Vessel containing water
CO2, He, H2 or O2 from a cylinder
Thermometer (room temperature)
Barometer (not adjusted to sea level)
Procedure The conical flask is tared filled with air. Gas is passed into the flask for a few seconds via
rubber tubing fitted with a glass tube which reaches the bottom of the vessel. When the dis-
play of the balance no longer changes, the gas flow is discontinued and the mass ∆ m read.
The conical flask is then filled with water and volume V determined with a measuring cylinder.
The volume can be found more accurately and just as conveniently with the aid of a balance
and the assumption that the density of water = 1.00 g/cm3.
Evaluation The gas density is the quotient of the gas and its volume. The gas mass has not been
measured directly, but is calculated:
m gas = m (flask with gas) – m (flask with air) + m air

= ∆m + m air
Mass difference between gas and air ∆m in g

Mass of air (not measured) m air in g
Volume of conical flask V in dm3
Room temperature ϑ in ºC
and hence T in K
Air pressure p in mbar
m gas ∆m + m air
Under the experimental conditions, the gas density is ρ gas = =
V V
and under standard conditions ρo gas = ∆m ·

1013 mbar
·
T
+ ρo air
V p 273.1 K
with ρo air = 1.293 g/dm3
Note – The conical flask must be completely dry.

– The gas cylinders should be at room temperature.
– Gases that are lighter than air (e.g. helium) should be allowed to flow into the inverted
conical flask from below.
12
Buoyancy in gases
Teaching objective If a body is weighed in air, the buoyancy force is equal in magnitude to the weight of the
displaced air.
The same applies for other gaseous and liquid media. In the determination of the mass of
bodies of low density, a buoyancy correction must therefore be made.
Assignment – Determine the buoyancy difference between air and helium of a litre flask filled with air.
– Determine the buoyancy difference between air and helium of a litre flask filled with helium.

1 Round-bottomed flask 1 I with stopper (bored through halfway)
1 Small bucket (51)
Stand
Helium or carbon dioxide from a steel cylinder
20 cm long metal tube Β 6 mm, on base
Risk of explosion
Procedure The tube is inserted in the stopper with an appropriate bore and then placed on the balance.
The round-bottomed flask is now attached to the stopper and the weight read. The next step is
to invert a bucket over the flask and allow helium to flow into the bucket from below until the
weight is constant. The flask has become “heavier”!
The flask is now filled with helium and placed on the scales again. The scales show a lower
mass because the mass of the helium in the flask is lower than that of the air. If the flask is
again surrounded by a helium atmosphere, the scales show the same mass as if the air-filled
flask were surrounded by air.
13
Physics
Evaluation The mean molar mass of air (28.8 g/mol) is about seven times greater than that of helium.
Consequently, quite different forces act on the liter flask:
The forces acting on the litre flask are thus very different: about 1.15 g for air as
against about 0.16 g for helium.
The forces investigated can be represented schematically as follows:
Extension The relevant experiments may be carried out with carbon dioxide (CO2) instead of helium.
Since the specific gravity of CO2 is greater than that of air, the arrangement must be reversed.
– The bucket is at the very bottom.

– The round-bottomed flask hangs on the balance and is immersed in the bucket.
– The balance is supported by a stand or more simply on a stool with a grip hole. The round-
bottomed flask is hung on the hook on the underside of the balance. First, however, the
balance must be switched on.
The liter flask holds approximately 1.75 g carbon dioxide. Accordingly, the “weight differ-
ences” with CO2 are over half as great as with He; this is shown by a comparison of their
molar masses:
44 – 28.8
= 0.61
28.8 – 4
14
14
Density of liquids
Teaching objective To determine the density of liquids from the measurement of the volume and mass.
Assignment Assignment Investigation of the density of various liquids such as water, alcohol, chloroform,
hexane and benzine.

Measuring cylinders, volumetric flasks, pipettes, specific gravity bottles, beakers
Various liquids, see above
Measuring Volumetric flask Pipette Specific gravity bottle

cylinder
Procedure The glass apparatus such as specific gravity bottle, beaker or measuring cylinder is tared and
then filled with the liquid under investigation. The mass is noted down.
Evaluation The density is determined as the quotient of mass and volume.
ρt = m
V
ρt = density at temperature t
m = mass
V = volume
t, ϑ = temperature of liquid
Final considerations Since the density of liquids is temperature-dependent, the temperature must be specified.
For very accurate measurements, a buoyancy correction is necessary.
Note The liquid used for school experiments must not be irritant or poisonous.
Carbon tetrachloride, benzene and concentrated alkalis and acids must not be used.
15
15
Physics
Force and opposing force
Theme “Forces always occur in pairs – if a body exerts a force on another body, the second body
acts on the first with a force
a) of equal magnitude
b) which is oppositely-directed ‘opposing force’,
c) which is along the same line of action.” 1
(Newton’s Law of action and reaction) 2
1 METTLER TOLEDO precision balance

Experimental arrangement
(readability 0.01g)
3
2 Stool, stand or similar
3 Suspended body
4
4 Beaker with liquid, e.g. water
5 Adjustable lab jack
6 METTLER TOLEDO precision balance
(readability 0.01g) 5
Procedure a) The two balances are operated in the no-load condition (!) in accordance with the
instructions.
b) The body is hung from the upper balance and the lab jack with beaker + liquid placed on
the lower balance.
c) The beaker can now be raised so that the suspended body is gradually immersed in the
liquid.
d) As the upper balance shows, the body is forced upwards by the liquid and apparently
becomes lighter.
As the lower balance shows, the liquid (and the beaker and lab jack) is forced downwards
by the immersed body and apparently becomes heavier. Both changes are exactly equal
in magnitude.
Critical comment a) Negative: The use of two electronic balances with projected displays appears very
extravagant.
In a school of moderate or large size, it should be easy to find the second balance in
another department.
b) Positive:
1) The experimental setup is fully comprehensible without additional explanation.
2) The handling of the apparatus is simple and there are no hidden snags.
3) The demonstration can be performed without unnecessary loss of time.
4) The interest of the pupils is held since by the raising and lowering process as well as
by later retaring, fresh pairs of values are continuously found whose adherence to the
law can be checked with and even sometimes without mental arithmetic.
5) Other experiments for “action” and “reaction” are mostly less enlightening and demand
intricate explanations.
16
16
Deflection force
Teaching objective To change the direction of a flow, a normal

force is needed (perpendicular to the
direction of velocity).
Assignment Investigation of the force which diverts

the water flow

Plastic tubing, diameter: external, e.g. 12 mm; internal 8 mm,
length according to requirement
Tubing connector on water tap
First guide tube approximately 20 cm long, internal diameter slightly greater than the external
diameter of the tubing
Non-slip stand and clamps to hold the tube horizontal
Plastic tank, 5 liter
METTLER TOLEDO balance, weighing range e.g. 0...6 kg or measuring cylinder
1000 ml
Stop watch
Second guide tube made of wood (to secure the tubing on the balance), e.g.
1 Plastic tubing
2 First guide tube secured to stand
Experimental arrangement 3 Second guide tube made of wood
4 Weight to hold 3 firmly in place
on the balance
5 Plastic tank
6 Sink with water outlet
17
17
Physics
The first guide tube is secured on the stand at the same height as the second tube on the
balance. The tubing support must be incapable of displacement on the balance; it may be
necessary to add an additional weight. While longer tubing can be displaced more easily,
when the length is doubled the maximum flow rate is reduced by approximately half and the
maximum force by approximately a factor of four!
Theoretical It is essential in this experiment that the weighing pan of a METTLER TOLEDO compensation
considerations balance remains at exactly the same height above the bench even with changeable loading.
This prevents the plastic tubing from twisting and the measurements thus suffer no distur-
bance due to deformation forces. The water is diverted by the tubing and consequently exerts
an opposing force in an upward direction at the right on the tubing. The vertical force compo-
nent F is measured with the balance. It depends on the mean rate of flow v– of the water and
this can be calculated from the throughput volume ∆V during time ∆ t and the internal cross-
section of the tubing A:
v– = ∆V / ∆t
A
Procedure a) The water is allowed to flow very slowly at a rate which just prevents air bubbles entering
the tubing via the open end; the balance is tared.
b) The water tap is opened slightly and the force F measured.
c) The empty tank is held in the water stream for a suitable time interval ∆ t.
At the same time, a careful watch must be kept on the balance display as the water supply
pressure can show short-term fluctuations.
d) The volume of water in the tank is determined either with a measuring cylinder or – quicker
and more accurately – by weighing on a second balance.
e) The steps b) to d) are repeated with other flow rates.
Table with F, ∆ t, ∆ V, v–
Evaluation With the non-rigorous but simplifying assumption that each water particle has the
same drift velocity. ∆V / ∆t
v = v– = (1)
A
The volume which flows through the cross-section A

in time δ t is given by: δ V = A · v · δt.
The corresponding mass δm = ρ · δV
has the momentum δ p = v · δm = ρ · A · v 2 · δt.
Initially, it is directed horizontally, but later downwards. Thus, during time δt, a momentum
Ý
change in a downward direction is produced by the force (–F ) of the tubing:
F · δt = δp = ρ · A · v 2 · δt
(∆V / ∆t )2
F = ρ · A · v2= ρ · A
(∆m /∆t )2
F= (2)
ρ·A
~= F (∆m /∆t )2 (3) 18

and the reading on the balance m =
g ρ·A·g
18
The measured relationship between
∆m /∆t and m~ I (F) can best be represented in a
double logarithmic diagram.
A line with slope 2 is drawn. The experimental points lie virtually on the line so that the qua-
dratic relationship between ∆m /∆t and m~ is confirmed.
The values of the above table have naturally not been invented and are actual
measured values obtained with plastic tubing of 8 mm internal cross-section. How do they fit
equation (3)? The fifth measurement, for example, gives with
}
∆m /∆ t = 99.8 g/s
ρ water = 1.00 g/cm3 inserted in (3)
A tubing π · (0.40 cm)2 m~
= calculated = 20.2 g instead off
g = 981 cm/s 2 ~
m measured = 20.0 g ±0.2 g
The agreement appears good; nonetheless, not all water particles move at the same rate.
Final considerations The experiment is carried out in 20 minutes. It offers the opportunity to review the concepts:
“action and reaction”, “momentum change equals impulse” and “log-log graduation”.
19
19
Physics
Resisting force in an airstream
Teaching objective In flowing media, a body experiences a resisting force F, which depends on the size (A) and
the shape (cr) of the body as well as on the density ρ and the relative velocity v of the flowing
medium.
Assignment Investigation of the resisting force with various bodies in the airstream of a wind generator.

Wind generator
If possible, Prandtl pitot tube with manometer to measure the air velocity
Various resistance bodies (with support rods)
– with an equal as possible flow area against the body (maximum section); e.g. circular
disk, sphere, solid hemisphere, hollow hemisphere, streamlined bodies, model planes
– of the same shape, e.g. small, medium and large circular disks or square plates
– rod alone, without resistance bodies
Mounting of the resistance bodies, e.g.
1) Weighted base with additional cross hole of 8.2 mm Β

2) Aluminium rod 8 mm Β, 400 mm long
3) Hole to accept the rod of the resistance body
4) M3 screw to prevent twisting
5) Possibly a counter weight
To protect the balance against drafts, use a box 60 cm x 60 cm x 40 cm, for example, with
the features:
– free access for the users/students
– secured to the bench with two clamps
– with a cutout in the base to allow the balance
to stand directly on the bench
– with a small lateral opening for the aluminium
rod (2) of the mounting.
Experimental arrangement If a powerful wind generator is used, the protective

box is an absolute necessity as the airstream is
reflected at the ceiling and air vortexes hit the
balance from above (check with a candle flame!)
1. Wind generator
2. Box
3. Resistance body in mounting
20
20
Procedure a) Preliminary trial: A pitostatic tube is used to determine the region in which the airstream
has a constant velocity.
b) Note for all further experiments: In what follows, the resisting force F(body) which the body
alone experiences is desired. The airstream exerts pressure on the mounting, however,
and the balance displays the force F(measurement). Consequently, a second measure-
ment must be performed without the body, namely with only the rod, to determine the force
F(rod). F(body) is then given by F(measurement) – F(rod).
c) The resisting force F is measured at different air velocities v with one body.
Table with v, F(measurement) and F(body).
Possibly a different body size or shape can be selected and the experiment repeated.
d) F (body) is determined at constant wind velocity for bodies of different size (A) but the
same shape. Table with A, F(body) and F(body)/A.
Possibly repeat with bodies of a different shape.
e) F(body) is determined at constant wind velocity for bodies of different shape but the same
airflow area (maximum section) A.
Table with shape sketch and F(body).
Possibly repeat with a different wind velocity.
f) The time for a single measurement takes one to two minutes and depends greatly on the
dexterity and experience of the user.
Evaluation For turbulent flow, theory predicts
ρ
for the dynamic p dyn = · v2 ρ = density of the flowing medium
2
pressure c r = resistance parameter (shape factor)
A = maximum section (area of the body
and for the F = cr · p dyn · A projection on a plane vertical to the flow
resisting force direction)
the following is thus expected:

with c) proportionality between v 2 and the resisting forces [F(measurement), F(rod),
F(body)];
with d) a constant quotient F(body)/A;
w > cw
with e) cwl l >cw
• > cw
Final considerations The experiment is well suited for a demonstration in the lesson since it can be carried out
quickly.
21
21
Physics
Forces on an airfoil
Teaching abjective An asymmetric body subjected to an airflow experiences a force component perpendicular to
the resisting force (drag) FR in the flow direction. In the case of the airfoil, this normal force is
the lifting force (aerodynamic lift) F A.
Assignment Investigation using a flat plate and an airfoil of the dependence of the desired lifting force F L,
the undesired resisting force FR as well as their quotient FL /F R on the angle of incidence α.

Wind generator
If possible, Prandtl pitot tube with manometer to measure the air velocity
Airfoil model, with very thin parallel fins and revolving mounting
Small board (of wood, plastic or metal) with fins and revolving mounting
Non-slip stand base with vertical drill hole
Mounting for horizontal clamping of the model, e.g. a wooden block
1) Rod, which carries the revolving model

2) Wooden block, 180 mm x 100 mm x 30 mm
3) Drill hole, suitable for rod 1)
4) Possibly a screw; prevents rod 1) from twisting
5) Rod, 10 mm ∅, fitting snugly in the block
6) Counter weight of approximately 1 kg, e.g. weighted base
To protect the balance against drafts, use a box 60 cm x 60 cm x 40 cm,

for example, with the features:
– free access for the experimenters
– secured to the bench with two clamps
– with a cutout in the base to allow the balance to stand directly on the bench
– with a small lateral opening for the rod 1)
22
22
Experimental arrangements Measurements of the lifting force
and the resisting force require
different arrangements.
Lifting force
Resisting force
If a powerful wind generator is used,

the protective box is an absolute necessity
as the airstream is reflected at the ceiling
and air vortexes hit the balance from
above (check with a candle flame).
Prodecure a) The velocity distribution in the airstream in front of the wind generator is investigated with a
Prandtl pitot tube.
b) Lifting force FL: This can be calculated theoretically as follows:
CA= lifting parameter, shape dependent

A = maximum section (area of the body projection
FA = cA · A · ρ · v 2 on a plane vertical to the flow direction)
2 ρ = air density
v = wind velocity (relative velocity of the air with respect
to the body)
Investigate the dependence of the lifting force on the wind velocity.

Table with v, FL, graph.
Possibly repeat with a different profile or a different angle of incidence.
c) For the following measurements, the air velocity is kept constant; at the profile let it be v *.
The dependence of the lifting force on the angle of incidence α is measured first for the
small board.
23
23
Physics
d) Resisting force FR: Also this is proportional to the dynamic pressure

ρ
(pdyn = · v 2), hence FR ~ v 2.
2
This should be checked if time allows.
e) Since the airstream strikes not only the test body but also its mounting, Fw (mounting)
must be measured in a preliminary experiment without the body, i.e. with the mounting
alone. Subsequent measurements FR (total) must be corrected:
FR (model) = FR (total) – FR (mounting)
f) For the following measurements, the air velocity at the site of the test body is again
adjusted to v = v * as above. The dependence of the resisting force FR (total) on the angle
of incidence α is then measured at the board and the airfoil.
Table with α, FR (total) and FR (model), graphs.
Time required For the measurements alone, a practised experimenter needs approximately 45 minutes.
When the evaluation is included, a school group needs three to four hours.
Evaluation It is usual to represent FL and FR of the

airfoil in a polar diagram after Lilienthal.
For further interpretation of the results,
consult the specialist literature, e.g.
course documentation for glider pilots.
Final considerations The apparatus is simple to operate, but

the experimental work demands very careful
attention and the evaluation also requires
care. Despite its stringent requirements,
the experiment is very popular.
24
24
Dependence of the magnetic field
strength of a coil on the current intensity
Teaching objective The magnetic field strength of a coil is proportional to the current intensity.
Assignment Measurement of the dependence of the force which a small bar magnet experiences in the
magnetic field of a coil on the current intensity in the coil.

Air-core coil (e.g. 7 cm long, 4 cm diameter, 250 windings)
Direct current source which can supply approximately 5 to 10 A
Sliding resistor (e.g. 6 Ω) if the voltage of the direct current source cannot be
regulated
Switch
Ammeter
Electrical cable
Stand
Small permanent magnet, e.g. cylindrical bar
Non-magnetic bar (aluminum rod, wood), approx. 15 cm long, in a non-magnetic light base
M Magnet Q Current source

R Rod Sw Switch
B Base R Sliding resistor
A Ammeter
The magnet is affixed to the upper face of the bar with a little grease. The coil is positioned so
that the magnet is located just below one end of the coil.
Procedure An initial test is performed to establish whether the magnetic field of the coil has a direct
influence on the balance causing the display to change when the current is switched on. It will
be seen that METTLER TOLEDO balances are virtually insensitive to external magnetic fields!
Further, it should be noted that the magnet must not be displaced relative to the coil during a
series of measurements since the coil field is inhomogeneous. In this respect, no difficulties
arise with a balance which operates according to the compensation principle as the weighing
pan remains approximately at the same height above the bench whatever the load.
After the balance has been tared, the current intensity l is increased in steps. The associated
values of l and F (for the force) are tabulated and later plotted graphically. It is seen that the
force is strictly proportional to the current intensity.
Consequently, the magnetic field strength is also proportional to the intensity of the current.
25
25
Physics
Soft iron in a magnetic field
Teaching objective Soft iron is magnetized in an external magnetic field and experiences an attractive force when
the field is inhomogeneous.
Assignment Measurement of the dependence of the force experienced by a piece of soft iron in the
magnetic field of a coil on the current intensity in the coil.
Material Exactly the same material as in the previous experiment on page 25, except the magnet is
replaced by a piece of soft iron, e.g. by an iron screw of approximately the same size.
Experimental arrangement As for the previous experiment on page 25.
Procedure and evaluation The measurement procedure corresponds exactly to that of the experiment described on
page 25. However, the relationship between I and m (for F) is by no means linear.
Example of measurement with Allen key M8,25 mm long:
The forces for 3 A and 6 A imply a quadratic

relationship:
~ = k · l2
m
This can be checked most simply by a graphi-

cal plot with double logarithmic axes:
The drawn line has a slope of exactly 2. Since

the experimental points fit the line extremely
well, the assumption is confirmed F ~ l 2
Conclusions In the experiment on page 25, a permanent

magnet in an external magnetic field experi-
ences a force proportional to the current inten-
sity. Here, however, the piece of iron is first
magnetized by the coil field. It then experi-
ences the corresponding force F, which on the
one hand depends on the magnetic field
strength H of the coil field and on the other
hand on the magnetization J of the piece of
iron.
The proportionalities F ~ H ⋅J, H ~ l and F ~ l 2
allow the conclusion J ~ l, i.e. in the observed
field strength range, magnetization of the iron
piece is proportional to the electric field
strength.
26
27
Chemistry
How much sodium bicarbonate
does an effervescent tablet contain?
Theory Effervescent tablets (vitamin tablets, lemonade, etc.) contain sugar, flavoring and food
colorings as well as tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate in addition to the actual active
substance. When such a tablet is added to water, the sodium bicarbonate reacts with the
tartaric acid to form the very soluble sodium tartrate together with carbon dioxide and water.
Carbon dioxide is evolved as a gas and the tablet dissolves.
H H H H
2 NaHCO3 + HOOC C C COOH → NaOOC C C COO Na + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
CH CH O HO H
sodium tartaric acid sodium tartrate carbon dioxide
bicarbonate
The sodium bicarbonate content can be derived from the amount of carbon dioxide evolved.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g), wide-necked conical flask 300 ml,
glass rod, effervescent tablets, pocket calculator, disposable drinking cups, dish towels,
bucket for waste.
Experimental procedure 1. Add approx. 2 dl tap water to the conical flask, dry the outside well, place on the balance
and tare.
2. Put an effervescent tablet next to the conical flask on the weighing pan, determine its
weight and note the result.
3. Tare again with the tablet.
4. Add the tablet carefully (without splashing) to the water, wait for the completion of reaction,
stir well with the glass rod and determine the mass of the evolved carbon dioxide. Note the
result.
5. If desired, you can pour the drink into a cup and drink it. Otherwise, pour the solution away.
6. Rinse the conical flask thoroughly and dry the outside carefully. It is now ready for the next
experiment.
Results and evaluation Mass of tablet: a = …g; mass of CO2 :b = …g
1 g of evolved carbon dioxide corresponds to an NaHCO3 content of 1.91 g

b g of evolved carbon dioxide corresponds to an NaHCO3 content of 1.91· b g
The percentage of NaHCO3 in the tablet is: 1.19 · b · 100 %

a
Numerical example The following was found in an experiment:

Mass of tablet: a = 4.38 g; mass of CO2 :b = 0.23 g
The percentage of NaHCO3 in the tablet is: 1.91 · 0.23 · 100 % = 10.03 % ~ 10%
4.38
27
28
Determination of fat in soja and nuts
Theory Many vegetable foodstuffs such as soja beans, peanuts, hazelnuts, sunflower seeds, etc.
contain vegetable fats, which can be recovered relatively easily by extraction with a lipophilic
solvent. These foodstuffs are also important on a large scale for the production of edible oils
and fats.
To determine the fat content, the finely milled nuts, seeds or beans are extracted with petroleum
ether, hexane or the like. Anhydrous magnesium sulfate is added to bind any water present.
Filtration of the solution and evaporation of the solvent gives the pure fat, which is then
weighed.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01 g), conical flask 100 ml with taper
stopper or a suitable measuring cylinder, petroleum ether or hexane, anhydrous magnesium
sulfate, funnel, filter paper or cotton wool, beaker 100 ml, pipette 10 ml. Soja, hazelnut or
peanut flour.
Experimental procedure 1. Approximately 3 g soja, hazelnut or peanut flour are weighed.

2. The flour is added to the conical flask or the measuring cylinder, 40 ml petroleum ether or
hexane poured in, 5 g anhydrous magnesium sulfate added and the vessel shaken
thoroughly from time to time over a 5 minute period. To equalize the pressure, the taper
stopper is opened briefly before and after shaking.
3. Part of the suspension obtained is filtered through filter paper or cotton wool into a dry
vessel which can be closed off (e.g. conical flask with stopper or beaker with a watch
glass cover). Closing off the vessel prevents evaporation of the solvent.
4. Exactly 10 ml of the filtered solution are now pipetted into a small, weighed beaker and the
sample evaporated in the fume cupboard on a water bath until the odor of solvent has
disappeared completely.
5. The sample is allowed to cool and then reweighed.
Results and evaluation The fat content can be determined from the weight of the foodstuff (a = … g) and the mass of
the residue (b = … g), which comprises pure fat:
Fat content = 100 · 4 · b %

a
Numerical example From a 3.00 g weighing (= a) of hazelnut flour, a residue of 0.52 g (= b) was
found after evaporation of 10.0 ml filtered extract. This corresponds to a fat content
of approx. 70%.
28
29
Chemistry
Determination of chalk in rock
and soil samples
Theory Chalk can be determined in rock and soil samples by reaction of the calcium carbonate with
hydrochloric acid. The calcium carbonate reacts to form calcium chloride, water and carbon
dioxide, and the carbon dioxide evolved by the reaction solution is weighed:
CaCO3 + 2 HCI Õ CaCI2 + H2O + CO2
This is a simple and really accurate method of determination.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g), conical flask 100 ml, conc. HCI,
dist. water, rubber puffer, limestone (approx. 1 g).
Experimental procedure 1. Approximately 8 ml conc. HCI and approximately 10 ml dist. water are added to the
conical flask.
2. The flask containing the hydrochloric acid is placed on the balance and tared.
3. The limestone is placed next to the flask on the weighing pan, its mass is determined and
the whole retared.
4. The limestone is then added to the solution. A violent reaction ensues immediately and
carbon dioxide is evolved.
5. After completion of the reaction, a little air is blown into the gas space of the flask with the
aid of the rubber puffer and a pipette to expel any CO2 present.
6. The flask is reweighed and the CO2 loss determined.
Conical flask with

hydrochloric acid
and limestone
Results and Evaluation 1.58 g limestone evolve 0.386 g CO2. From the reaction equation and the corresponding
stoichiometric composition
CaCO3 + 2 HCI Ý CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

100 g/mol 44 g/mol
1.58 g xg
from 1.58 g pure CaCO3, = 1.58 g · 44 g / mol = x = 0.695 g CO2

100 g / mol
are expected. Since, however, only 0.386 g CO2, namely 55.54%, were evolved from
0.695 g, the calcium carbonate content of the limestone sample investigated is 55.54%.
Please note The method’s accuracy can be checked with pure CaCO3.
29
30
Determination of the water
of crystallization in salts
Theory The crystalline forms of many salts contain bound water, which can be expelled by heating.
The water molecules are cleaved from the hydrated salt and evaporate leaving the anhydrous
salt:
heat
hydrated salt anhydrous salt + water
If the exact water loss is determined by weighing, the number of bound water molecules of the
so-called “water of crystallization” can be calculated.
Note: A side reaction can set in on too powerful or prolonged heating. If, for example, the
water of crystallization content of copper (ll) sulfate is determined, copper (ll) oxide can be
formed from the anhydrous salt with cleavage of sulfur trioxide; this can be seen from a
darkening of the white product:
CuSO4 (anhydrous) heat CuO + SO3
This side reaction leads to a smaller mass for the reaction product, that is to an apparently
larger weight loss which, in turn, leads to a greater than actual value for the water of crystal-
lization in the calculation.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g), porcelain crucible with lid, tripod,
burner, clay triangle (appropriate to the crucible), crucible tongs, glass rod, crystalline salt
such as copper sulfate, alum, gypsum, etc.
Experimental procedure 1. The empty crucible and lid are weighed.

2. The crystalline salt (approx. 1 g) is added to the crucible and weighed exactly.
3. The crucible is now heated with a small, non-luminous flame. The open crucible is held
with the tongs and the contents stirred with the glass rod.
4. When the salt is dehydrated, which can be seen either by the color change, e.g. with
copper sulfate or by completion of the reaction (no water vapor development, no “crater”
formation), the crucible is covered and allowed to cool to room temperature.
5. It is reweighed when cool.
6. The experiment is repeated with weighings of 2, 3 and 4 g.
Results and evaluation 1. The water loss is calculated in g for each experiment from the exact weighing and the mass
of the residue.
2. The water losses are plotted graphically against the respective weighing. Within a certain
scatter, the experimental points should lie on a straight line passing through the origin of
the coordinates. This serves as an additional check on the measurement accuracy.
30
31
Chemistry
3. From the reaction equation and the corresponding stoichiometric composition
hydrated salt Õ anhydrous salt + water

a = ...g b = ...g c = ...g
(weighing) (residue) (water loss)
the number of molecules of bound water of crystallization x is given by:
c · MMsalt (a–b) · MMsalt

x= =
(a–c) · 18 b · 18
where MM salt represents the molar mass of the anhydrous salt.
4. The value of x is calculated for each individual experiment and compared with the
literature values.
Numerical example The following values found in an experiment with crystalline copper(II) sulfate:
Weight of salt: a = 2.48 g; residue: b = 1.57 g
Water loss: c = (a–b) g = 0.91 g
0.91 · 159.5
x= = 5.14
1.57 · 18
The copper sulfate thus crystallizes with 5 molecules of water of crystallization.

Formula: CuSO4 · 5 H2O.
31
32
Thermolysis of salts
Theory Thermolysis is understood to mean the degradation of a substance with the aid of heat
(“thermal decomposition”). Thermolyses can occasionally proceed violently and uncontrol-
lably, or side or parallel reactions set in at the relatively high temperatures needed for thermol-
ysis; this complicates or even precludes a stoichiometric evaluation of the weighing results.
Substances which decompose quantitatively on moderate heating are particularly suitable for
stoichiometric investigations. The following experimental directions were tested with the two
model substances sodium bicarbonate and magnesium carbonate. The “historical” experiment
involving the thermolysis of mercury(ll) oxide was not carried out for reasons of technical
safety and on ecological grounds.
In the thermolysis of sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate (“soda”) is formed with splitting
off of water vapor and carbon dioxide.
∆T
2 NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
This process plays an important role in technical soda manufacture (production

of “calcined soda”).
In the thermolysis of magnesium carbonate, carbon dioxide is split off:
∆T
MgCO3 MgO + CO2
This reaction proceeds analogously to the manufacture of quicklime from calcium

carbonate: ∆T
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
The thermolysis of magnesium carbonate is thus a model reaction for the technically impor-
tant calcination of limestone in cement manufacture. The decomposition of MgCO3 into the
oxide proceeds at lower temperature however, so this reaction is better suited for investigation
in the laboratory or for demonstration purposes.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g), tripod, burner, clay triangle, porce-
lain crucible (several if possible), crucible tongs, magnesium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate
(anhydrous).
Experimental procedure 1. The empty crucible is weighed, approx. 0.5 g magnesium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate
added and the crucible reweighed.
2. The crucible is now carefully heated with a non-luminous flame. Water vapor and carbon
dioxide are split off and escape from the reaction mixture; this can be observed by “crater
formation”. The sample must be heated carefully at the beginning to ensure that gas forma-
tion leads to no loss of material from the crucible by spattering.
3. When diminished gas evolution shows that the reaction is nearing completion, powerful
heating to red heat is applied. The heating is discontinued when gas evolution is no longer
visible.
4. The crucible is allowed to cool to room temperature and weighed with the reaction product
formed.
5. The experiment is repeated with 1 g,1.5 g, 2 g and 2.5 g.
32
33
Chemistry
Results and evaluation 1. The dependence of the residue masses on the weighings is plotted graphically.
The experimental points lie on a straight line passing through the origin of the coordinates.
2. On the basis of the reaction equation and the corresponding stoichiometry, the theoretical
value for a particular weighing, e.g. 1.000 g sodium bicarbonate, is calculated:
∆T
2 NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
2 · 84 g/mol 106 g / mol
From 1.00 g sodium bicarbonate, theoretically

106
g = 0.631 g sodium carbonate
168
are formed.
For magnesium carbonate, the following holds:

∆T
MgCO3 MgO +CO2
84.31 g/mol 40.31 g / mol
from which it follows that for 1.000 g magnesium carbonate

40.31
g = 0.478 g magnesium oxide are formed.
84.31
3. The values found in the experiment are compared with those calculated theoretically.
33
34
Synthesis of copper sulfide
Theory When a metal, e.g. copper, combines with a non-metal, e.g. sulfur, a salt-like product is
formed. The ratio of the quantity of metal used to the chemically-bound non-metal remains
constant, independent of the amount of copper used (law of constant proportions). The pur-
pose of the present experiment, which is best carried out several times and as a pupil exer-
cise, is to confirm this law. Further, the empirical formula of the compound formed should be
determined. The law of constant proportions is only applicable when the product formed is
homogeneous, namely when it has, for example, the same crystalline form. This is not quite
the case here (copper sulfide is a non-daltonide compound), but the experiment is valuable
for didactic reasons.
For the synthesis, copper is used as the metal and sulfur as the non-metal to form copper
sulfide:
copper + sulfur Õ copper sulfide
The synthesis is performed with an exactly-known amount of copper and with an excess of
sulfur to ensure that all the copper reacts with the sulfur. After the sulfur has melted, it reacts
immediately with the copper present.
The excess sulfur sublimes or combusts to SO2, which is evolved as a gas.
sulfur+ oxygenÕ sulfur dioxide
Since sulfur dioxide is poisonous, work must be carried out in a fume cupboard.
The reaction is performed in a porcelain crucible. After the residue has been weighed, the ratio
of the amount copper used to the amount of bound sulfur, the percentage of the elements in
the compound and the empirical formula are determined. Minimum three and if possible
many more independent experiments are performed. A graphical plot increases the accuracy
of the evaluation.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01 g), tripod, Bunsen burner, porcelain
crucible with lid, crucible tongs, clay triangle, copper sheet, powdered sulfur.
Experimental procedure 1. Pieces of approx. 0.5 g, 1 g, 1.5 g and 2 g are cut from a sheet of copper and weighed to
the nearest mg.
2. A particular copper piece is cut into smaller pieces of approx. 1.5 cm x 1.5 cm; these are
added to the empty crucible (previously weighed with lid), covered with a small excess of
powdered sulfur and heated with a small, non-luminous flame on the tripod in a fume
cupboard.
3. When the excess sulfur has been completely volatilized, which can be recognized by the
absence of any flame or brownish-yellow sulfur vapor, the crucible is closed with the lid
and heated strongly for 2 minutes.
4. The burner is now shut off, the crucible cooled to room temperature (air cooling) and then
weighed.
34
35
Chemistry
Experimental
arrangement
Crucible without Crucible with lid

lid at the start after reaction completion;
and during the reaction for heating, cooling and
weighing
Results and evaluation The following values were found in a school experiment:
Measurement a g Copper b g Sulfur % Copper % Sulfur a:b

(bound)
1 1.162 0.282 80.47 19.53 4.12

2 1.450 0.370 79.67 20.33 3.92
3 0.745 0.203 78.58 21.45 3.67
4 1.715 0.436 79.73 20.27 3.93
5 1.631 0.441 78.72 21.28 3.70
6 0.585 0.166 77.90 22.10 3.52
7 1.408 0.343 80.41 19.59 4.10
1.242 0.320 79.51 20.49 3.88
From these results, it can clearly be seen that the ratio of the mass of copper to that of sulfur
is constant and independent of the initial amount used. In addition, the series of experiments
shows that, despite a certain scatter in the individual measurements, when the series is
considered as a whole, there is no ambiguity. The experimental points lie on a straight line
passing through the origin.
To calculate the empirical formula, the following composition is used:

Cu: 79.51 % : 63.54 g/mol Õ 1.251 Õ 2
S: 20.49 % : 32.06 g/mol Õ 0.629 Õ 1 } empirical formula: Cu2S
35
36
Molar mass determination of
liquified gas
Theory The determination of the molar mass of a gas is carried out by evacuating a known volume of
a vessel, e. g. a 1-liter round-bottomed flask fitted with a stopcock at the side, filling this with
the gas concerned and then determining the mass of this volume of gas. Conversion of the
volume obtained to standard conditions (STP: temperature T = 273 K; pressure p = 1013 mbar)
gives the volume of the measured amount of gas at STP. From the general gas law, it follows
that 1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at STP. This allows simple derivation
of the molar mass. The present experiments are not concerned with the determination of the
molar mass of gases in general, but rather with that of a particular type of gas, namely a
liquified gas. Butane, which is obtainable in cylinders from any department store, is used.
This liquified gas is supplied for refilling gas lighters. On the one hand, the experiment shows
the method of molar mass determination and, on the other hand, it is suitable for use as an
introduction to stoichiometry and the gas laws.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g), pneumatic trough with 1-liter
measuring cylinder as collection vessel, short length of thin inlet tubing, inlet tube, syringe
100 or 200 ml, stand, clamp, barometer, thermometer, cylinder of liquified gas.
Experimental procedure Measurements with the pneumatic trough

1. The collection vessel is a 1-liter measuring cylinder which is filled with water, stoppered
with a rubber bung and then immersed upside down in the water of the pneumatic trough.
2. The measuring cylinder is now opened under water. No air must enter the cylinder.
3. The measuring cylinder is then fixed with a clamp on the stand such that the edge of the
measuring cylinder and the bottom of the trough are separated by approx. 1 cm.
4. The liquified gas cylinder is weighed.
5. Gas (approx. 800 – 900 ml) is passed into the measuring cylinder through the inlet tube,
which is connected by means of a short length of thin tubing to the gas cylinder.
6. Since the gas expands when leaving the cylinder, it is cooled, but then warms up to room
temperature. Five minutes should be allowed to elapse before the gas volume is read.
7. In the meantime, the liquid gas cylinder is reweighed.
8. The amount of gas which has entered the measuring cylinder is then calculated.
36
37
Chemistry
Measurements with the syringe

1. A 100 ml or 200 ml syringe is secured to the
stand in a manner which ensures convenient
introduction of the gas from the cylinder into the
syringe opening.
2. The cylinder is weighed,100 or 200 ml gas
introduced and the volume read immediately
(leaks in the syringe have a greater adverse
effect on the experimental results than the small
error arising from cooling of the gas when it
flows out of the cylinder).
3. The cylinder is weighed again and the amount of
gas introduced is calculated.
Results and evaluation In an experiment with the pneumatic trough method,1.908 g gas were introduced.
The measured volume was 830 ml at 20.5 °C and the air pressure 988 mbar.
The calculated volume at STP is
Vexp. · pexp. · To
Vo = = 830 ml · 988 mbar · 273 K = 753 ml
po · Texp. 1013 mbar · 293.5 K
In 753 ml ^
= 0.753 dm3, 1.908 g of the gas in question are present.
1.908 · 22.4
A volume 22.4 dm3 therefore contains g = 56.8 g
0.753
The experimental value of the molar mass of the gas is thus 56.8 g/mol. The calculated value
for butane (C4H10) is 58 g/mol. When it is considered that the volume of the piece of tubing
and the inlet tube could also be taken into consideration, the measurement provides astonish-
ingly good results. The fact that the gas volume has been measured “wet”, namely over a
water vapor atmosphere, has been neglected in the evaluation, however.
It must also be considered that the scale division on the standard cylinders and syringe is not
accurate. A more accurate determination of the molar mass is possible only by performing the
experiment with a glass weighing sphere (compare experiment «Density of air». The volume
of the glass sphere can be determined by weighing the amount of water it can hold.
Evaluation of the experimental results obtained using the syringe is performed in an analo-
gous manner. This measurement is also quite accurate; values of 60.5 and 60.9 g/mol were
found. The pressure of the glass plunger on the gas is not taken into consideration.
37
38
Rate of evaporation
Theory The evaporation of liquids or volatile solids is a phenomenon associated with particle motion,
namely with the kinetic energy of the molecules. The rate of evaporation depends on several
factors but primarily on the instantaneous temperature, the pressure and the intermolecular
forces between the individual molecules. The molar mass and the molecular shape, which in
turn influence the intermolecular forces, also play a part. Evaporation and its rate can be
conveniently followed and measured on a balance.
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01 g), 1 large Petri dish
(diameter 8 –12 cm), various liquids such as acetone, ethanol, hexane, etc.
Experimental procedure The Petri dish is placed on the balance, the appropriate liquid added to a height of approx.
5 mm, the whole tared and the mass of the evaporated quantity read every 15 seconds.
The measurements are discontinued after 3 minutes.
Important: The same Petri dish must be used for all measurements to ensure a constant
evaporation area.
It must also be ensured that no drafts due to open windows or doors appear during the
measurement. Direct sunlight should also be avoided.
Petri dish
with liquid
METTLER TOLEDO
precision balance
Results and evaluation 1. The measured values are plotted on graph paper. The quantity of evaporated liquid is
plotted against time.
The following values were found for acetone in an esperiment with a Petri dish of 9 cm
diameter at 21°C:
Time: 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 s

Amount: 0 4 8 12 15 19 22 26 30 33 37 mg
38
39
Chemistry
The evaporation rates of ethanol, ethyl acetate and butyl acetate were determined in the same
manner.
The following values were found:
Acetone: 15.0 mg per minute b.p. 56 °C

Ethanol: 3.7 mg per minute b.p. 78 °C
Ethyl acetate: 6.5 mg per minute b.p. 77 °C
Butyl acetate: 1.7 mg per minute b.p. 126 °C
Interpretation The interpretation of these values is difficult since the extent to which the different factors
mentioned in the theoretical section contribute to the whole differs widely.
An attempt will be made at an interpretation, however.
1. Acetone has the greatest rate of evaporation. Obviously, the intermolecular forces are
relatively weak and this is reflected in the low boiling point of acetone. These forces are in
any case smaller with acetone than with ethanol since ethanol is capable of forming inter-
molecular hydrogen bonds, which retard evaporation.
2. Evaporation of ethanol is slower than that of ethyl acetate even though the molar mass of
ethanol is smaller and the boiling points are about the same. Again, the hydrogen bonds at
the ethanol surface are probably responsible as they “hold back” the evaporating mole-
cules. This is not the case with ethyl acetate; here, only the much weaker Van de Waal’s
forces are operative.
3. The rate of evaporation of ethyl acetate is greater than that of butyl acetate.
This correlates with the boiling points and the molar masses as well as with the molecular
size. Probably, the stronger Van de Waal’s forces in the case of butyl acetate are responsi-
ble for its lower rate of evaporation.
39
40
Homogeneous catalysis:
The decomposition of H202
Theory A catalyst is a substance that initiates or accelerates a reaction without itself undergoing
change. The reaction accelerating effect of the catalyst is due to a lowering of the activation
energy of the respective reaction.
If the catalyst is present in a phase different from that of the substances participating in the re-
action, this is known as heterogeneous catalysis. If, on the other hand, the catalyst is in the
same phase as the reactants, homogeneous catalysis occurs.
The decomposition of H2O2 is represented by the equation:
2 H2O2 catalyst 2 H2O + O2
and can be catalyzed both homogeneously and heterogeneously. Substances such as silver,
manganese(l\/) oxide (MnO2, “pyrolusite”) are used as heterogeneous catalysts; potassium
iodide solution or a solution of the enzyme catalase are examples of homogeneous catalysts.
In the following experiments, the homogeneous catalysis of the reaction with potassium iodide
solution is investigated and the dependence of the evolved oxygen on time measured.
By variation of the amount of catalyst, its influence on the reaction can be established.
Further, the manner in which the reaction itself proceeds can also be deduced. Thus, if the
process occurs in a single step according to the general scheme:
R (reactants) Õ P (products)
oxygen formation sets in immediately after addition of the catalyst. However, if the process
proceeds in two steps via an intermediate according to the scheme:
R (reactants) Õ I (Intermediate) Õ P (products)
oxygen is formed only after a certain time, the so-called “induction period” has elapsed.
This difference between the two reaction models can also be recognized from the slope of the
experimental curve obtained by plotting the mass of evolved oxygen against time.
In these experiments, the balance is not simply a weighing instrument; it assumes the
function of a measuring instrument for observation of the process which occurs during the
reaction. Naturally, the experimental values found can also be evaluated with a computer.
If a Mettler overhead projection display is available, the series of experiments can also be
carried out in a demonstration and can be evaluated conveniently and interpreted together
with a class.
40
41
Chemistry
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g, with overhead projection display for
the demonstration), 1 beaker 250 ml, syringe or graduated pipette 0 –10 ml, glass rod,
500 ml freshly-prepared H2O2 solution 1%, sat. Kl solution, clock with second hand, graph
paper for the evaluation.
Experimental procedure 1. The beaker is tared on the balance.

2. 100 g 1% H2O2 solution are now added.
3. Sat. Kl solution (2.0 ml) are added with a pipette or syringe, the solution stirred briefly with
the glass rod and the whole retared.
4. The mass loss of the evolved oxygen is read every 15 seconds and the experimental
values noted down. The measurements can be discontinued after 5 – 6 minutes.
5. Further series of measurements with 4.0 ml and 8.0 ml sat. Kl solution are performed.
If need be, additional measurements with 3.0 ml, 6.0 ml and 9.0 ml Kl solution can also
be carried out. Larger quantities of catalyst should not be employed as a dilution effect
occurs due to the increase in the total volume of the reaction solution; this effect must be
compensated in the calculation. For the given catalyst concentrations, reconciliation of this
dilution effect is not necessary.
6. The mass values found are plotted graphically against time.
Note: If lack of time (e.g. when the measurements are carried out as a demonstration experi-
ment) demands a faster reaction, the entire series of experiments can also be performed with
50 ml 3% H2O2 using 0.75 ml, 1.5 ml and 3.0 ml Kl solution as catalyst. The experimental
values are then subject to a certain error, however, since the solutions are warmed slightly by
the exothermic process. They are nonetheless accurate enough for an evaluation.
Results and evaluation In a series of experiments employing 100 ml freshly-prepared H2O2 1% with either 2.0 ml,
4.0 ml or 8.0 ml sat. Kl solution as catalyst, the following values were found at a temperature
T = 21°C:
41
42
Interpretation The following facts can be derived from the present experimental results and from the graph:
1. The reaction under investigation occurs not in one but rather in two steps
according to the scheme:
R (reactants) Õ l (intermediate) Õ P (products)
2. The reaction rates obtained when the slopes of the lines L1, L2 and L3 are
determined at the inflection points of the respective curves are proportional to the amount of
catalyst.
Slope L1: reaction rate v1 ≈ 40 mg O2 per minute

Similar behavior is also frequently observed in enzyme reactions. The present reaction can
serve as a model for such reactions.
3. With decreasing catalyst concentration, not only is the reaction rate lowered, but onset of
oxygen evolution is retarded. The induction period of the reaction is clearly longer.
42
43
Chemistry
An explanation of these facts is provided by the reaction profile:

In the first reaction step, iodide ions and H2O2 react to form hypoiodite ions:
I– + H2O2 Õ IO– + H2O,
which then react further with a second molecule of H2O2 to water, oxygen and iodide ions:
IO–+ H2O2 Õ I– + H2O + O2.
The iodide ions formed in the second reaction step are available for the first step. Since both
individual reaction steps proceed much more rapidly than the overall reaction without iodide
addition, the iodide ions have a catalytic effect on the formation of the intermediate IO-
(hypoiodite). They lower the activation energy of H2O2 decomposition to water and oxygen.
Note A further reaction occurs, at least immediately after the addition of iodine, parallel to the reac-
tion mentioned so far, but soon reaches equilibrium and hence stops. Here, iodide is oxidized
to elemental iodine by the oxygen formed:
2 H3O+ + 2 I– + [O] Õ 3 H2O + I2

Õ
The formation of elemental iodine can be recognized by formation of a yellow color in the
reaction mixture. The H30+ ions arise from water:
2 H2O Õ H3O+ + OH–

Õ
Since the H30+ ions are “consumed” in the formation of iodide, their concentration is lowered
rapidly so that iodine formation ceases after the equilibrium concentration is reached.
This parallel reaction has no influence on the evaluation of the present experimental results.
43
44
Biology
Transpiration in plants
Objectives – Detection of water loss through the plant leaf

– Dependence of transpiration on plant ecotype and environmental conditions
– Dependence of transpiration on the width and expanse of the stomata
Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (minimum readability 0.01 g)

Conical flasks with narrow neck, 100 or 200 ml
Stoppers with bore
Cotton wool
Paraffin oil (possibly colored with a lipophilic dyestuff)
Table lamp
Hair dryer
With sensitive balances and if short measuring intervals are desired, it is advisable to construct
a windbreak tunnel from plexiglass (can be purchased cut to the desired dimensions and
easily glued with a suitable adhesive)
Plant material: There are many possibilities during the summer term. A branch from a plant in
a warm, dry location and one from a plant in a moist location is a minimum requirement,
however. Readily available throughout the whole year from gardens or parks:
Yew (other conifers are also suitable)
Evergreen snowball species (Viburnum rhytidophyllum, V. fragrans)
Evergreen cotoneaster species (e.g. Cotoneaster salicifolius)
Laurel (Prunus laurocerasus, which is extremely suitable for the preparation of thin sections
for microscope)
Holly
Oleander
Experimental arrangements Fill the conical flask with water. Insert freshly cut branch. Carefully add a little paraffin oil with
a pipette on the water surface (to prevent direct evaporation). A stopper with a bore or cotton
wool or a combination of both should be used to hold the branch loosely in an upright
position.
Procedure The conditioned branch is weighed at suitable time intervals (depending on the sensitivity of
the balance and the size and type of the branch) and a table of values constructed.
Evaluation The loss in weight is primarily dependent on the leaf area used, the time and the relative
atmospheric humidity. It is thus practical to calculate the amount of water transpired per cm2
leaf area per minute. It thus remains to determine the leaf area in the following manner:
The leaves are laid on a fixed sheet of paper and traced out with a pencil. The leaf outline is
then cut out and its weight determined.
The weight of a sample area of, for instance, 100 cm2 is also determined.
45
Biology
Example:
Pelargonium branch Time Weight of vessel Weight
with branch and water difference
0 min 108.187 g –
5 min 108.135 g 52 mg
65 min 107.585 g 550 mg
Weight of paper leaf area: 2.927 g

Weight of paper sample area: 1.172 g (100 cm2)
weight of paper leaf area
Leaf area in cm2: · 100 = 250 cm 2
weight of sample area
Specific transpiration = weight loss per cm2 per min
weight loss 602

= =
time in min · leaf area 65 · 250
= 0.0370 mg/cm–2/min–1
The procedure can be simplified by referring the water loss to the plant mass (transpired
amount per g fresh weight per minute). This allows different plants to be compared with one
another more rapidly.
Extension of the experiment Branches kept in the dark are weighed rapidly on the balance; an increase in transpiration
occurs when the stomata open.
The specific transpiration for different plants is determined. Microscopic leaf sections can be
combined with this. The environmental conditions can be changed using the same plants:
moist air (glass bell lined with blotting paper or by covering the windbreak tunnel mentioned
above)
dry air (room)
warm air (with heating lamp)
moving air (with hair dryer)
Concluding remarks The branches should be placed in water immediately after cutting and possibly nicked again
under water. The branches should be collected when the plant is well supplied with water
otherwise they will take up water, but will not transpire at the outset when the stomata are
closed. The weight loss is then very small. This difficulty can be circumvented by conditioning
the plants for a few hours before the start of the experiment.
46
46
Intake of water vapor
by lichens
Objectives This experiment can be used to show how plants can absorb water from moist air. Further,
it will become apparent why trees in locations where the (unpolluted!) air is moist and subject
to heavy fog have a heavy growth of lichens.

Petri dish (high wall) with 12 cm Β
Petri dish or plastic cover with approx. 6 cm Β
Filter paper
Air-dried frondous or fructicose lichens (e.g. Pseudoevernia furfuracea, cetraria and stereo-
caulon species)
Procedure The moist chamber is prepared according to the sketch.
An air-dried lichen thallus of suitable size must now be

weighed accurately and then placed in the moist
chamber, which is well sealed. After 1/2 h, the thallus
is reweighed (work quickly!) and then returned to the
moist chamber. The weighings should be initially
repeated every 1/2 h then later at longer intervals until
no change in weight occurs.
Evaluation The dependence of the water intake on time is plotted graphically along the following lines:
A condensate is formed on the lichen thallus in the moist chamber. This condensed water is
initially absorbed rapidly in the air-filled voids present in the dry lichen thallus (steep increase
in curve). The walls of the fungal hyhae subsequently swell up until complete water saturation
is attained (shallow increase in curve). Water intake causes the initially brittle and friable
lichen thallus to become soft and elastic.
47
47
Biology
Water intake and loss in mosses
Objectives Water intake from the soil by mosses is insignificant. The water is predominantly absorbed
from rain, dew, fog and water vapor. The experiments show what significant water quantities
are retained by mosses and why these plants are thus of such considerable importance in
various ecosystems. The experiments also provide a good introduction to anatomical and
physiological problems with mosses.
The comparison of the water budget of mosses and vasculiferous plants is illuminating.

Glass dishes
Absorbent paper
Different mosses (e.g. polytrichum, leucobryum, sphagnum)
Procedure An air-dried mossy cushion is weighed and then completely immersed in a glass dish filled
with water. First at short, then at longer time intervals the cushion is taken out of the water,
freed from any adhering water by a brief shaking, dried by pressing gently on absorbent paper
and weighed. When no further change in weight occurs, the maximum water intake has been
reached.
Evaluation This can be carried out along the following lines:
Extreme values are found under laboratory conditions. In the natural habitat, the maximum
water storage is reached only momentarily during heavy precipitation. At this point, the oppor-
tunity to demonstrate the water cells of sphagnum and leucobryum under the microscope
should on no account be missed. Compare here STEINECKE and AUGE (1963).
Extension of the experiment The water-saturated mosses can also be used to measure the water loss. The moss cushion
is laid on a dry support and examined at intervals lasting several hours (several days).
The above-mentioned authors also describe experiments for the water conduction of mosses.
For comparison purposes, fungi and lichens can be investigated for water intake and loss in
the same manner.
48
48
Water and ash content
of different plant organs
Objectives, The experiments are suitable for group instruction and the attainment of the following teaching
preconditions objectives:
– Insights into the material composition of the plant body
– Familiarization with analytical methods
– Illustration of the concepts of fresh weight, dry weight, water content, organic and inorganic
substances, and ash content.
The pupils should be familiar with the following topics: water and mineral salt intake, photo-
synthesis; and have a basic knowledge of chemistry.

Petri dishes or beakers
Porcelain dishes
Drying cabinet
Bunsen burner with tripod, porcelain triangle, magnesia or glass rod, possibly a muffle furnace
Plant material such as leaves, bulbs or tubers, roots, fruit
Procedure The technical procedure is discussed on the basis of the following scheme:
The plant material, which must be as fresh as possible, is weighed and then quickly placed in
the drying cabinet. It is dried for 10 min at 105 °C (rapid destruction of the tissue to avoid res-
piration losses) and then dried at 80°C to constant weight (1– 2 days). Use of a constant dry-
ing temperature of 105 °C has been abandoned primarily because different plant substances
(e.g. ethereal oils) volatilize or undergo thermal decomposition at this temperature. The dry-
weight determination is now performed.
If a muffle furnace is available, the dried plant material is ashed at approx. 500 °C; otherwise,
this is carried out in a porcelain dish over a Bunsen burner beginning with a small flame and
then later switching to a more powerful flame. The carbonizing material should be stirred oc-
casionally. To remove clumps of carbon particles, the material is allowed to cool, moistened
with a few drops of alcohol, the particle clumps powdered and the whole reheated. The ash
remaining is weighed.
49
49
Biology
Evaluation The water content is determined from the formula water content = fresh weight – dry weight.
The ash content is expressed in % of the fresh weight and the dry weight.
The following table may serve as a basis:
If the experiment is carried out in a practical class, it is essential to include a discussion of

possible error sources in the evaluation.
Additional possibilities – Qualitative ash analysis

– Investigation of different leaf types (summergreen, evergreen, succulent)
– Sun and shade leaves or leaves at different heights or wind-protected and wind-
exposed leaves of one species of plant.
50
50
Concerning alcoholic fermentation
Objectives and formulation Carbon dioxide is evolved during alcoholic fermentation. The fermentation substrate becomes
of the problem lighter and this can be detected easily with a balance. When the external conditions are held
constant, the evolution of carbon dioxide per unit time is thus a measure of the metabolic
activity of the yeast fungus. By modification of a basic experiment, the effects of different exter-
nal factors on the fermentation activity can be investigated. The basic problem always remains
the same: The determination by weighing of the dependence of the weight on time.
Level of knowledge required from the pupils: respiration and fermentation: course, significance,
and chemical events in the sphere of empirical formulae.
If the experiments are performed during a practical class, the pupils themselves can plan the
different series and carry them out. In class instruction with a lesson of 45 minutes duration,
demonstration of the temperature dependence is certainly possible: One flask in the room,
one in the drying oven and a third in the refrigerator. A complete fermentation curve cannot,
however, be constructed

Pressed yeast
Glucose
Conical flask of 100 ml capacity with a stopper bored through once and with loose cotton
wool filling
Drying oven and refrigerator; if necessary, water bath or thermo-lamps.
Procedure Tap water (90 ml) and 10 g pressed yeast are added to a conical flask. The yeast is sus-
pended by stirring and shaking. Immediately before the start of the experiment and after the
suspension has assumed the desired reaction temperature, 5 g glucose are added. The first
weighing is then carried out (with stopper); the second weighing is performed after 10 min-
utes, the third after 20 minutes, etc. The suspension must be shaken thoroughly after every
weighing.
If typical fermentation curves are required
during a double lesson, it is essential to
work at the optimum temperature of 3 °C.
Uniform, well-controlled shaking is impor-
tant and must be carried out at least after
every weighing. If the experiment is con-
ducted at room temperature, the use of a
magnetic stirrer is advised.
Evaluation This is carried out using the method shown

in the example below. The values were
determined at a room temperature of 19 °C.
It thus shows what can be achieved with
very simple apparatus in the field of
fermentation activity.
51
51
Biology
After a slow start (induction phase), the reaction accelerates and then proceeds at a constant
rate; this rate decreases with decreasing sugar content. Complete reaction requires several
hours.
At 35 °C, the slightly S-shaped curve can be obtained within 90 minutes.
The yield of CO2 from a specific weight of sugar can be calculated stoichiometrically (48.8%).
In our experiment, therefore, 2.44 g carbon dioxide should be evolved (it must be borne in
mind, however, that part of the pressed yeast material consists of fermentable substances).
Additional possibilities The dependence of the fermentation activity on the following factors can be determined:
– on the temperature
e.g. in the range 0 to 60 °C, with determination of the optimum. At this point, the rule
governing the dependence of the reaction rate on temperature can also be demonstrated.
– on the amount of yeast cells or the quantity of enzyme
Experiments with different quantities of yeast from 2 to 20 g, for example.
– on the amount of sugar
Experiments with 2.5, 5,10 and 20 g sugar, for example.
– on the type of sugar
– on the pH value
Different buffer solutions are prepared from sodium phosphate and sodium dihydrogen
phosphate and their pH value determined. The optimum value lies in the weakly acidic
region.
– on shaking
To what extent does thorough shaking or stirring promote the fermentation activity?
– on nutrients
Effect of meat extract, ammonium sulfate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate
in the substrate.
– of preservatives and disinfectants
For example, the preservative sorbic acid, added in the form of potassium sorbate in
various amounts (100, 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 mg), can be tested.
Concluding remarks To obtain comparable results, the following must be observed:

– the same type of yeast must be used in all experiments and it must be fresh.
– picking up, carrying and setting down the conical flasks must always be carried out care-
fully to avoid shocks if possible; these may adversely affect the experimental results.
– when experiments are conducted at different temperatures, weighings should be carried out
as quickly as possible to keep cooling or warming within acceptable limits.
52
52
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Understanding The Laws of Nature: Weighing Helps

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Classroom Experiments

Descriptive experiments in the classroom and independent experimentation in practical

METTLER TOLEDO GmbH

Various substances mentioned in the experiments may be hazardous, toxic or explosive.

Our well known base unit of 1 kilogram corresponds

The balance is familiar to man not only as one of the most

A similar portrayal from the Christian veneration of

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

Evaluation The density is the quotient of mass and volume

Experimental arrangement The empty basket hangs

Stand Wire basket

Example: Car wheel nut

mass volume (mean density)

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01 g)

Temperature Mass Density

Teaching objective Even air possesses mass and density!

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

Procedure To simplify the calculations, the water should be at room temperature.

Evaluation The density is determined as the quotient of mass and volume

Mass of the evacuated air m in g

and for the standard density

(literature value 1.293 kg/m3)

Teaching objective This experiment illustrates the density of a gaseous substance.

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

m gas = m (flask with gas) – m (flask with air) + m air

Mass difference between gas and air ∆m in g

and under standard conditions ρo gas = ∆m ·

with ρo air = 1.293 g/dm3

Note – The conical flask must be completely dry.

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01 g)

The forces investigated can be represented schematically as follows:

– The bucket is at the very bottom.

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

Measuring Volumetric flask Pipette Specific gravity bottle

Evaluation The density is determined as the quotient of mass and volume.

1 METTLER TOLEDO precision balance

Teaching objective To change the direction of a flow, a normal

Assignment Investigation of the force which diverts

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01 g)

The volume which flows through the cross-section A

~= F (∆m /∆t )2 (3) 18

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

1) Weighted base with additional cross hole of 8.2 mm Β

Experimental arrangement If a powerful wind generator is used, the protective

Evaluation For turbulent flow, theory predicts

the following is thus expected:

with d) a constant quotient F(body)/A;

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

1) Rod, which carries the revolving model

To protect the balance against drafts, use a box 60 cm x 60 cm x 40 cm,

If a powerful wind generator is used,

CA= lifting parameter, shape dependent

Investigate the dependence of the lifting force on the wind velocity.

d) Resisting force FR: Also this is proportional to the dynamic pressure

This should be checked if time allows.

FR (model) = FR (total) – FR (mounting)

Evaluation It is usual to represent FL and FR of the

Final considerations The apparatus is simple to operate, but

Material METTLER TOLEDO precision balance (readability 0.01g)

M Magnet Q Current source

Experimental arrangement As for the previous experiment on page 25.

Example of measurement with Allen key M8,25 mm long:

The forces for 3 A and 6 A imply a quadratic