Abrasion and Erosion

Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Sixth Edition, 2002 Electronic Release
ABRASION AND EROSION - Abrasion and Erosion (Klaus Schneemann)
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Abrasion and Erosion

KLAUS SCHNEEMANN, Hüls AG, Marl, Federal Republic of Germany
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1. Introduction
Practical experience with industrial equipment, machinery, and plant has shown that components have only limited service lives. Damage and ultimate failure of the component can occur as a result of changes in the material that
originate at the surface, even if the components are designed such that long-term action of the forces alone causes neither fracture nor undue deformation.
If the reactions responsible for the damage are of electrochemical or predominantly chemical nature, the term corrosion is normally used, whereas mechanical damage to the surface of the component is defined as wear. Attempts
to avoid a loss of material due to wear, or at least to reduce the loss, concentrate on making the affected surface more resistant to wear. This can be achieved by mechanical, thermal, or thermochemical treatment of the surface or
by applying or depositing metallic coatings. Under some circumstances the wear conditions can be changed by design measures so that the danger for the affected component surface is eliminated or reduced to a tolerable level.
With few exceptions (e.g., running-in of bearings), wear in engineering means an undesired change that causes very high costs every year; in a highly developed, industrialized country this can amount to ca. 1 – 2 % of the gross
national product [1].
Excluding the contribution from the automobile sector, the proportions occurring in the various branches of industry can be divided up approximately as shown in Table (1). From this, it can be seen that the plant construction
typical of the chemical industry plays an insignificant role, and wear is correctly known as "the problem child of mechanical engineering" [2].
Wear, friction, and lubrication are described under the term tribology as the science of the study, industrial application, and modification of the phenomena and processes occurring between surfaces which are acting against each
other and moving relative to one another; this includes boundary surface interactions between solids, and between solids and their gaseous or liquid surroundings. Since at least two components of a system are involved in wear,
it is not a pure material characteristic, but only a system characteristic. Wear itself is generally understood as progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid body caused by mechanical action, i.e., contact and relative
motion with a solid, liquid, or gaseous phase.
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2. Types of Wear and Wear Mechanisms
The treatment of wear must take the diversity of tribological processes into account, and this requires precise analysis of the loads and of the appearance of the damage. It is usual to subdivide the large number of wear processes
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Sixth Edition, 2002 Electronic Release © Wiley-VCH. Weinheim. Germany.
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into types of wear and wear mechanisms, in which different mechanisms have to be allocated to one and the same type of wear.
The kinematic conditions and the types of materials involved in the wear determine the types of wear, such as sliding wear, elastic rolling wear, impact wear, and shock wear.
Oscillating wear stress, or oscillation wear, is caused by oscillating sliding and by oscillating sliding parts when rolling or even on impact. Wear mechanisms characterize the energetic and material interactions between the
individual elements of a wear system. DIN 50 320 differentiates between adhesion, abrasion, surface destruction, and tribochemical reaction as the principle mechanisms (Table (2)) [3].
Adhesion. If the micro-roughnesses on the "clean" surfaces of two solid bodies are in contact with each other, high surface pressures are generated locally; relative movements cause cold welding which can lead to separation of
material. Material transfer, scales, and shear dimples are typical wear patterns.
Abrasion. When two bodies of different hardnesses slide against each other, abrasion causes the softer surface of the base body to be scratched by the harder counter body. This harder body can be a micro-roughness of the
counter body or a wear particle that has already been removed. The penetration of the harder counter body and the relative movement produce wear grooves or furrows in the softer body, for which reason it is also called furrow
wear (Fig. (1)). If the softer material is plastically deformed and is displaced to the furrow edges, the process is called microplowing. Material is not removed in a single event but by the simultaneous action of many abrasive
particles or by repeated furrowing by one particle [4].
More often the material is removed by cutting; so-called microchips are obtained. In ductile materials these two processes are predominant, but in relatively brittle materials micro-particles break away and microgouging occurs.
Depending on the number of components involved, a distinction is made between two-body and three-body abrasion wear. Sliding, shock, and rolling are possible types of wear, see Table (3) [5].
Oscillating mechanical loads in the surface of a solid can lead to surface destruction by material fatigue. This appears as formation and propagation of cracks, and may lead to separation of material particles.
Tribological stress in the system can lead to tribochemical reactions in addition to purely physical processes. As a result layers can appear on or between the touching surfaces. In general these wear mechanisms do not act in
pure form in practice; they usually occur in combinations.
According to [4] the relative proportions of microplowing and microcutting can be determined from the profile of a wear groove (Fig. (2)). The so-called fab value is defined by
so that for the two extreme cases, pure microplowing and pure microcutting, fab becomes 0 and 1, respectively.
The linear wear intensity Wl/s is defined as
where ∆h represents the reduction of thickness of the worn component and s is the wear path.
Using the fab value allows the wear intensity to be expressed as
where p is the surface pressure, Hdef is the hardness of the wearing material in the strain-hardened state, and ϕ is the form factor.
The fab value is a function of the effective surface deformation caused by the abrading particles, the ductility of the worn material, and the material's strain-hardening behavior [6]. The value decreases with increasing ductility,
increasing strain-hardening capability, and decreasing surface deformation.
According to the above equation, a high wear resistance means a small fab value and a high material hardness in the strain-hardened state. According to this model, hardness alone often fails to provide a reliable assessment of the
expected wear resistance.
Figure (3) A shows the wear resistance 1/Wl/s as a function of hardness for various metals, and Figure (3) B shows the resistance as a function of the ratio HVdef/fab in accordance with the above equation. For different materials
with the same hardness, the wear resistance increases with increasing strain-hardening capability; see Figure (4) [4].
This assumes that in the test method the wear takes place at the so-called upper shelf of the wear characteristic. In the treatment of wear problems, WAHL was the first to draw attention to the connection between abrasive particle
hardness and wear [7]. He found that at a certain value of the particle hardness the wear increases sharply, and at higher values remains virtually constant; see Figure (5).
Note, however, that the pure furrowing described here occurs in tests with bonded particles, a condition which occurs relatively rarely in practical situations. More typical is the case where unbonded, loose particles are carried
over the surface of the component, and additional rolling motion is also possible.
With increasing particle mobility, the wear caused by loose particles represents the transition from abrasive sliding wear to erosion (abrasive – erosive attack).
Erosion. Erosion phenomena are caused by flow, in which the flowing fluid itself is erosive or the fluid carries particles that are unable to follow the filaments of flow at surface irregularities. In this case a shock component is
often superimposed on the plowing mechanism; this causes local deformation and destruction.
If the fluid is a gas, tribochemical reactions with the solid are only possible at fairly high temperatures where the ablation mechanism can act through the processes of sublimation, vaporization, or fusion.
Pure liquid erosion occurs relatively rarely because even at high flow velocities the forces acting are hardly sufficient to cause removal of material; exceptions to this are additional corrosive elements and the involvement of
cavitation.
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Cavitation. Since the term cavitation is used to describe the processes occurring in the liquid and also the resulting damage to the material surface, the latter is often called cavitational erosion to avoid confusion. These
processes are caused by the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor or gas bubbles in liquids. When the pressure falls, dissolved gases evolve from small gaseous nuclei, or evaporation takes place if the pressure falls locally
below the vapor pressure. In regions of higher pressure in the liquid the bubbles implode. If this implosion takes place directly at the surface of the component, the cyclic, locally confined compressive stresses finally lead to
microscopic fatigue phenomena. This resembles the behavior of materials under vibratory stress. If the vapor bubbles formed do not implode directly at the surface the shock intensity is attenuated by the interposed liquid layer
[8]. Damage is therefore only caused by bubbles which collapse directly at or close to the surface.
If the pressure differences are caused solely by flow, the resulting process is called flow cavitation. However, vibrations of sufficiently high frequency can initiate vibrational cavitation.
The material damage described can take place by purely mechanical means, but in practice it is often considerably intensified by superimposed corrosion stress.
Comparable damage can occur through the repeated impact of drops or liquid jets at high velocity. After the deformability has become exhausted in tough materials, initial cracks appear; these develop into breaks and progress to
deep fissuring. This wear, known as drop impingement, depends on the impact velocity (Fig. (6)) and the angle of impact [9].
In chemical technology and process engineering, the most important instances of erosion are those where the fluid contains solid particles. If the fluid is a liquid this type of wear is called hydroabrasive wear or scouring wear;
with gaseous fluids it is called jet wear. In both types of wear, plowing is active as the essential mechanism, and with steeper angles of impact there is an additional component causing destruction of the material. Tribochemical
reactions also occur.
During hydraulic transport of solids in pipelines, the flow path lines near the surface travel essentially parallel to the surface. The erosive effect of the particles is generally slight provided that the flow remains undisturbed. Flow
separation at irregularities causes turbulence, which can force the particles against the wall and produce erosion. Typical irregularities in pipelines are the protruding roots of welds. Furthermore, in turbulent flow more collisions
between particles occur, leading to impacts with the enclosing walls.
During hydraulic transport the particles follow the streamlines of the fluid better than in pneumatic transport due to the smaller difference in densities. Sliding jet wear is always present in horizontal pipeline transport due to the
influence of gravity.
Where changes in direction of flow occur, (e.g., at pipe bends) the particles, due to their higher density, are pressed to an increasing extent against the surface, where they have an erosive action (Fig. (7)) [10].
The wear increases distinctly with increasing velocity and can be described by the empirically determined expression
where α is the angle of impact, C is a constant that depends on the material and the abrasive, v is the velocity, and n is a velocity exponent which depends on the material, the abrasive, and the angle.
This equation is also valid for jet wear, in which material is removed by impacting and/or plowing particles in a carrier gas. Because of the large number of forms which occur in practice it is necessary to distinguish between the
sliding jet, in which the particle slides over the surface of the workpiece, and the impact jet, in which the particle strikes perpendicularly; all intermediate forms of jet (0° ≤ α ≤ 90°) are called inclined jets.
The basic process in jet wear is the impact of a particle against the surface at some arbitrary angle. About 90 % of the kinetic energy of the particle is converted into plastic deformation and heat (Fig. (8)) [11]. The main energy
conversion takes place in the softer body [12].
Estimates give values of a few thousand megapascals [13] for the pressures occurring on impact and of microseconds [14] for the impact times (Fig. (9)). The fatigue mechanism is dominant where the impact is predominantly
perpendicular, while at shallow incident jet angles the particle has a plowing action on the surface under the influence of a normal force component [15]. These result in different requirements for the material involved:
1) Very hard materials are best for withstanding plowing processes
2) Impact processes cause little damage if the energy can be absorbed elastically or plastically.
Since hard materials normally have low ductility, wear is low at small angles, but fragments are removed easily with perpendicular impact. Soft, ductile materials exhibit higher wear under furrowing conditions. At α = 0°, the
vertical component of the force theoretically approaches zero, so after a maximum the wear should also approach zero, but this situation does not actually occur in practice (Fig. (10)) [15].
Erosion – Corrosion. Under certain corrosive conditions many metals form covering layers. If these are sufficiently dense they act as protective films against corrosive removal of material. An example of this is the protective
layer of iron oxide formed in unalloyed or low-alloy boiler tubes. Erosion – corrosion is understood as the combined action of mechanical surface removal and corrosion. With some soft and loose layers the shear forces
obtained with pure flowing liquids at medium flow velocities are sufficient to damage the protective layer without the involvement of abrasive solid particles. Where drop impingement or cavitation are involved the mechanical
removal of material is understandable. On the other hand, diffusion-controlled corrosion inhibition may be nullified in flowing fluids as a result of saturation of the boundary layer [16]. The resulting purely chemical removal of
material therefore no longer corresponds to the usual term of erosion – corrosion and is now called flow-induced corrosion [17].
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3. Behavior of Materials
The many outward forms assumed by wear mechanisms make it necessary to design the component to be resistant to wear, at least on the surface under attack. This can be accomplished by selecting a suitable base material or by
modifying the surface by mechanical, thermal, or thermochemical treatment or by applying protective coverings of other materials [18]. Adequate wear resistance of a component is normally only one of several criteria in the
requirement profile. Adequate strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and other properties, such as ease of repair, are requirements which must also be met. Economic criteria also have to be considered. In general, theoretical
considerations and laboratory tests do not lead to a quick solution, and in most cases the final suitability is proved under operational conditions. Wear problems can often be overcome by changes in design or in the process
technology. Metals, plastics, ceramics, and protective coatings or layers are compared below purely from the aspect of material technology.
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3.1. Metals
There is still no comprehensive correlation available between wear and hardness of materials. Depending on the wear mechanism, other properties, such as the state of the material's microstructure, also play a significant role.
Because of the simplicity of the hardness test it is, however, useful to know which wear processes depend essentially on hardness alone. In any case, the loading of the material is confined to the surface region, and in abrasive
wear a penetration process occurs that is similar to the hardness tests. Unlike hardness tests, an additional tangential force component also has to be taken into account in the case of wear, which initiates effects such as increase
in temperature (possibly associated with phase changes), reaction layer formation, and strain hardening by plastic deformation, and can therefore lead to permanent changes in the tribological system.
It is usual to subdivide furrow wear into:
1) counterbody furrowing, in which the mineralogical grains are fixed on the surface of the counterbody (e.g., a grinding wheel), and
2) particle furrowing, in which the wear is caused by freely moving particles.
In trials both types show a similar dependence of the wear rate on the hardness of the attacking particle (lower shelf/upper shelf characteristic); see Figs. (11) [19] and (12) [20].
For steels an increase in wear resistance is observed with increasing hardness, whereby increasing the hardness by alloying elements has a greater effect than increasing the hardness by heat treatment.
With cast iron the wear resistance also tends to increase with increasing hardness. The maximum resistance values increase in the following order: gray cast iron with lamellar or spheroidal graphite, pearlitic cast iron, and
martensitic cast iron (Fig. (13)) [21].
In the upper shelf region and in the presence of normal abrasive particles, all pure metals exhibit a linear relationship between resistance and material hardness (Fig. (14)) [22].
Jet Wear. Materials in chemical plants are usually transported through pipelines and converted in enclosing containers. Compressors and fans are used as the conveying units when gaseous materials are transported, while
pumps are normally used for liquids. The resulting wear phenomena are therefore associated with the type of flow involved, and the various types of wear are covered by the term erosion.
Even at very high velocities pure gases are only capable of damaging the enclosing solid body when the temperature is high enough to lead to thermally induced reactions. Problems with gas conveying are therefore only to be
expected when entrained solid particles are present. In jet wear the material is elastically or elastically/plastically deformed by impact of the particles against the surface.
Apart from particle velocity the most important factor in jet wear is the jet angle: brittle metals exhibit increasing wear with increasing angle of impact, with a maximum at 90°; whereas with tough metals, wear increases up to
an angle of 15° – 40°, after which the loss decreases at steeper angles. The ductility and strain hardening at the surface are thought to be responsible for this behavior (Fig. (15)) [23].
The relationship between wear resistance and material hardness known from abrasion is valid only at small jet angles because of the comparable wear mechanisms. According to BITTER [24] , abrasion is dominant with the sliding
jet and surface destruction with the impacting jet.
For the first-named conditions WAHL [25] gives an appraisal of working characteristics (Table (4)) which relates predominantly to steel and cast iron.
Wear with Liquids. The forces that particle-free liquids exert on metal surface are so low at the usual flow velocities of a few meters per second that they do not cause any removal of material. According to HEIL, no erosion
effects could be detected with plain carbon steel, even at 60 m/s, in a test method similar to that with the rotating disc [26]. Damage caused by liquid flow alone is therefore relatively rare in practice. The situation is different if,
for example, a liquid under high pressure emerges with high velocity into a space of lower pressure; it may have an erosive action on the metal at the exit point. This applies to an even greater extent if the fluid forms dense
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protective layers with the metal. If these layers are removed mechanically, they must be reformed, otherwise erosion will act in combination with corrosion, which is known as erosion – corrosion. This situation occurs very
frequently in practice as many metals can only be used, for example, with water because a thin, usually oxidic layer protects the metal against corrosive attack. Table (5) gives guide values for maximum permissible flow
velocities for pure water and, for comparison, for the more aggressive seawater [27].
Since technical pure liquids usually contain very fine solid particles, it is often difficult in practice to differentiate between pure fluid erosion and so-called hydro-abrasive wear. As with jet wear, the number, hardness, and
velocity of entrained particles determine the extent to which the protective covering layer is removed and the extent of the pure metal wear. If mechanical stressing due to entrained particles is predominant then hardness and
strength are of decisive importance for metals, as shown in Figure (16) for copper alloys [28].
Cavitation and Drop Impingement. According to GREIN all materials succumb to the exceptionally high mechanical stress occurring during cavitation if the intensity is sufficiently high [29]. In soft materials such as aluminum,
cavitation erosion appears in the form of plastic indentations caused by single implosions. With higher strength metals the damage starts by roughening of the surface after a certain incubation time; as the destruction progresses
the interconnected holes eventually form a spongy structure.
In general, the strength and the fatigue strength are the most important material parameters for resistance to cavitation; hardness is therefore often used as a measure. With similar microstructures, the metal with the higher
hardness has the more favorable behavior, and where different metals have the same hardness, the resistance improves with increasing toughness. As cavitation attack takes place locally, the behavior is determined by the
structural constitution to a greater extent with this type of erosion than with others. A homogeneous, fine-grained microstructure is required; soft inclusions and soft, or very brittle, grain boundaries reduce the resistance.
The following factors increase the resistance to cavition erosion:
1) High corrosion resistance
2) Homogeneity
3) Ductility
4) Compressive residual stress
5) High strain-hardening capability
6) Smooth surface
7) Fine-grained structure
8) Fine-grained hard inclusions
9) High content of hard components
10) Layer structure
11) Wrought structure
while the following reduce the resistance:
1) Low corrosion resistance
2) Heterogeneity
3) Brittleness
4) Tensile residual stress
5) Low strain-hardening capability
6) Rough surface
7) Coarse-grained structure
8) Coarse-grained hard inclusions
9) High content of soft components
10) Dendritic structure
11) Cast structure
The data provided by PILTZ [30] and REINGANS [31] can be used as guides for the selection of materials.
As with other types of erosion, the superposition of a corrosion process also has to be taken into account where damage by cavitation occurs. Removal of material by corrosion after destruction of protective covering layers often
represents the more intensive attack, and the corrosion resistance of the material is then the dominant property.
A comparable stress occurs with drop impingement, characterized by repeated, short-time liquid impacts. The comments made above about cavitation also apply here to the material behavior.
Since residual stresses counteract the external loading of the material they can increase resistance to destruction perceptibly. In this sense, strain hardening has a similar effect to carburization and nitriding [32].
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3.2. Plastics and Elastomers
The relationship between wear and surface hardness obtained for metals would predict a comparatively poor behavior for polymers. However, their special structural features give rise to properties that can play a special role in
wear.
The viscoelastic deformation behavior is characterized by time-, temperature- and velocity-dependent deformation processes. Relatively low levels of hardness and strength, high plasticity, low thermal conductivity, and high
thermal expansion are effects of the weak secondary bonding forces between the macromolecules and their coiled structures.
In particular, the low tendency to adhesion gives polymers their good slip characteristics with steels as the sliding partners — in the absence of additional abrasive particles — because of the low frictional forces involved, and
the slip system is characterized by additional emergency running properties. Polyamide and PTFE occupy the prime positions here as they possess good cohesive linkage properties compared with other unreinforced polymers
[33] , [34].
If abrasive sliding stress is present, the dependence on hardness known for metals cannot really be depicted in the same way. It has been demonstrated that polymers exhibit a good relationship between wear resistance and crack
propagation energy, or even between wear and the product of tensile strength and fracture strain; see Figure (17) [35].
Due to their material properties, polymers have proved successful where streams of small particles cause impact stress in addition to sliding wear, i.e., with abrasive impact wear and with erosive attack. Although polymers
generally have poor resistance to abrasive sliding attack, their ductility, especially of elastomers, leads to a behavior superior to that of metals when the impacting component is dominant (Fig. (18)) [36]. Their behavior therefore
differs significantly depending on the angle of impact. The material becomes heated due to internal friction, which can lead to complete failure at high jet intensities.
The preferred elastomers include the polyurethanes and synthetic rubbers because of their outstanding resistance to wear. In polyurethanes, greater resistance is found in the hardness range 70 – 95 Shore A, whereas normal
grades of rubber reach their optimum between 50 and 70 Shore A [37]. It is not possible to separate the influencing factors systematically with respect to tribological behavior because of the large number of additives, types of
rubber, and applications (see Table (6)) [38] , [39].
If, for rubber and C 60 H steel, the amount of wear relative to St 37 steel is plotted versus the impact angle and the hardness of the jet material then, according to [40] , it is possible to show the very different wear behavior of
these two materials (Fig. (19)).
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3.3. Ceramics
Ceramic materials have gained increasing importance over the last few decades; in addition to corrosion resistance and suitability for high temperatures the resistance to wear is the important property of these materials. The
above-mentioned properties of the sintered body can be varied over a wide range by adjusting the powdered raw material.
The nonmetallic, mechanically resistant materials which are constituents of the ceramic materials can be subdivided into oxidic and nonoxidic materials [41]. High melting points and hardnesses are the outstanding properties, as
shown in Table (7).
Alumina is the most important oxidic abrasion-resistant material. Metal carbides are in some ways superior to oxides with respect to hardness and melting point, but they are much more brittle than the oxides and are only used
in isolated instances as wearing bodies. Silicon carbide is characterized by its low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity and has proved to be more resistant to thermal shock than oxides. Zirconia is tougher than
alumina; its modulus of elasticity is only about half as large and is comparable with that of steel. Zirconia is therefore very suitable for compound structures with steel. At present the applications of ceramic sintered materials in
chemical plant construction are slide rings, pump parts, and slide bearings.
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4. Surface Treatment and Coatings
The fact that wear starts at the surface of the workpiece suggests that only the tribologically stressed surface should be strengthened instead of making the entire component out of wear-resistant material. It should be borne in
mind that the base material has to fulfill other, for example, load-bearing functions as well as surface stressing, i.e., the surface which has been made wear-resistant must not interfere unduly with the component.
If the material involved can be hardened then various methods can be used to harden the surface to a certain depth by structural transformation, making it resistant to wear. These include induction, flame hardening, HF impulse,
electron, and laser jet methods. In case hardening, a steel which originally cannot be hardened is made hardenable by inward diffusion of carbon, sometimes also with nitrogen; hardening is then carried out by rapid quenching.
The hardness achieved is governed essentially by the contents of dissolved C and N; the usual depths of application are 0.5 to 2 mm.
Nitride layers are produced after treatment in a salt bath or in a gas atmosphere by inward diffusion, usually below 600 °C. Unlike transformation hardening, which is effected by lattice distortion as a result of embedded carbon
atoms, nitriding and boriding provide the surface with an exceptional increase in hardness by the formation of an intermetallic bonding layer. These bonding layers also increase the general corrosion resistance, but they are so
thin that they can break by mechanical point loading.
Hardfacing, on the other hand, is a thick layer process. By means of various welding techniques, wear resistant alloys in rod, wire, or powder form build strong metallurgical bonds in the fused state with the surface, which is
also fused. Mixing should be kept as low as possible. There is an exceptionally large variety of additives available on the market and, among other things, the requirement for mechanical workability must be taken into account.
Most filler metals are alloyed on an Fe-base, but Ni or Co can also be the main constituents where high-temperature and/or additional corrosion resistance is required. Where flat or rotationally symmetrical surfaces have to be
coated over large areas, automatic or fully-mechanized welding is much cheaper than manual welding [42].
Sheet metal plating by roll-bonded or explosion plating is not always as effective as weld plating with respect to adhesion. As the plating material must be very plastically deformable to achieve an intimate bond with the
supporting material, highly wear resistant and high-strength materials are unsuitable for the purpose. Nevertheless, this method is widely used in chemical technology because to a large extent corrosion stresses are superimposed
on the wear processes. The selection of highly corrosion resistant alloys applied to mechanically heavily stressed base bodies provides satisfactory solutions to the majority of problems in the construction of vessels and pipes
[43].
Thermal spraying can cause even greater adhesion problems than those of the above-mentioned coating methods. Unlike hardfacing, after the coating additive has been fused in a flame, arc, or plasma it is projected against the
cold or only slightly heated base. Adhesion to the surface and the density of the layer itself can differ greatly depending on the intensity of the spraying and the possibility of reaction with the surrounding medium on the way to
the base material. From a micrograph it can be seen that, depending on the process used, the layers have a particular structure caused by agglomeration of many fine globules of molten material, which become deformed on
impact and leave a visible porosity in the composite material.
The most important groups of materials for wire flame spraying and arc spraying are
1) Low- and high-alloy steels
2) Bronzes, nonferrous metals such as nickel, copper, zinc, Monel metal, brass, aluminum
Powder flame spraying is a versatile method of thermal coating and also handles
1) Special steel alloys with embedded mechanically resistant materials
2) Ceramics with fairly high melting points
3) So-called self-flowing Cr – Ni – B – Si alloys which, after the actual spraying process — without any adhesion layer — are submitted in a second operation to subsequent treatment at about 1100 °C (liquid-phase sintering);
this produces virtually pore-free layers with good adhesion characteristics.
Substantially higher temperatures are reached in the plasma process, so protective layers can be produced from high-melting oxides, carbides, and borides. The higher thermal energy and higher velocity produce improved
homogeneity and adhesive strength.
The quality of this method is improved by the use of an inert atmosphere under reduced pressure. Individual alloying elements are not burnt off, oxide and nitride formation is suppressed, and adhesion and layer structure is
improved.
Typical materials and applications for vacuum plasma spraying are:
1) M – Cr – Al – Y alloys for protection against corrosion by hot gases
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2) Carbides (WC, Co – Cr3C2, NiCr – TiC – NbC) for protection against abrasive wear and erosion
3) Oxides and refractory metals for the formation of thick protective coatings [44]
The use of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD) for forming coatings of carbides, borides, nitrides, and oxides has increased. The CVD method has been furthest developed for the deposition of
TiC, TiN, CrC, WC, and Al2O3 [45][46][47][48].
Surface treatment and coating of metals are discussed in more detail in → Corrosion - 5. General Corrosion Protection Procedures and in → Metals, Surface Treatment.
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5. Practical Examples of Abrasion and Erosion Damage
Chemical industry with its manifold process steps involves conveying products from vessels or tanks through pipelines to other vessels where new products are produced by chemical reactions, and then to still further
apparatuses where the solutions or mixture of products are separated from one another. The process steps also include mechanical processing such as comminution, kneading, and granulating. Production of large quantities
requires a continuous material flow. This can be achieved most easily with fluid phases which are transported in conveying units. Erosion and abrasion are therefore the predominant types of wear in the main chemical plant
components, while sliding wear, elastic rolling wear, and oscillation wear are found more in drives and machinery.
Transport velocities remain within defined limits and material flows are relatively constant, so characteristic wear data which have been determined under realistic conditions are quite readily transferable. Wear, as a form of
damage, does not play a dominant part in chemical plants. Nevertheless, it does occur and the following examples give an impression of the diversity.
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5.1. Sliding Wear, Elastic Rolling Wear, and Oscillation Wear
The pulsation in gases which have been compressed in reciprocating compressors must be adequately damped before the gases are transferred to heat exchangers for cooling. This damping was not sufficient in the case of
oxygen compression described here, so that the baffles were continuously striking against the supporting spacer tubes; they deformed them increasingly and caused sliding wear to the tubes seated tightly against them (Fig. (20)).
Instances of damage caused by sliding occur quite frequently in piston machines. In the rotary compressor shown (Roots type) for ammonia compression the damage occurred after approximately 60 000 h operation (Fig. (21)).
The centrifugal pump is the most important hydraulic machine for setting a fluid in motion and for increasing the pressure of the transported medium. Its roller bearings are highly stressed parts with a limited life. This can be
shortened considerably if axial shocks are transmitted from the flowing liquid as a result of large numbers of stops and starts, i.e., predominantly discontinuous operation. This is often indicated by running tracks displaced
towards the edges (Fig. (22)).
Predominantly transient stressing (radial impacts) occurred at the piston of an oxygen compressor where the surface of a stuffing box chamber ring showed tribochemical reaction zones as a result of heating in contact with
oxygen (Fig. (23)). Because of the danger of spontaneous ignition of metals in the presence of compressed oxygen any processes involving friction in such machines must be treated with great caution.
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5.2. Abrasion Wear
Where abrasive impact wear occurs in hammer mills, such as those used for comminution of raw coal in power stations, continuous replacement of plain plates of unalloyed steel is preferred to the application of sustantially
more expensive materials with only moderately improved service lives.
Three-body abrasive wear occurs relatively frequently in machines used for process engineering as the materials processed often contain additives with abrasive properties. This is particularly true for the large number of barrel
extruders used for kneading and milling processes. It is found, for example, in the draining of unvulcanized rubber, in which the moisture content is reduced from 60 to 10 % under a pressure of 6 – 8 MPa. Screw elements made
of 13 % Cr steel withstood these conditions for several years without any signs of wear. However, when the unvulcanized rubber contains carbon black the service life of screws made of X 40 Cr 13 is only about one year, even
after hard-facing with Hastelloy C (16 % Cr, 16 % Mo, remainder Ni), Figure (24). This carbon black can be processed, for example, in a wet comminution mill: 1.5 t/h carbon black is ground with 30 t/h water at 3000 rpm
between a stator and a rotor adjusted to a gap of approximately 0.4 mm. Both parts have impact ribs with special profiling and various flow diverters. In this case the most economical solution was again to design the elements as
wearing parts made of 18 % Cr steel and replace them after 7000 – 10 000 h operation (Fig. (25)).
The screw housings which enclose the screw shafts are exposed to high stresses, similar to those in the screw combs of the extruders. The product, which is processed under high pressures, stresses the surface to an exceptional
extent, especially in the so-called kneading zones of worm extruders. If glass fibers or glass balls are added to the product (in this case, polypropylene), even wear-protecting layers (60 % Ni, 18 % Co, 13 % Cr, 2 % Mo, 1 % C)
applied by centrifugal casting have only limited service life (Fig. (26)). A suitable method of coating with appropriate protective material should be selected to suit the type of stressing.
Permanent magnet pumps with no seals are being used increasingly for the sake of imission protection. The medium to be transported, in this case liquefied petroleum gas, flows through a gap of less than 1 mm around the non-
contact internal rotor, which is fitted with permanent magnets. Magnetite particles (Fe3O4) originating from the pipeline adhere to the outer surface of the internal rotor and cause permanent sliding abrasion at the isolation shell
and the rotor, (Fig. (27)); finally, this causes the entire pump system to leak.
Continued ...
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References
5.3. Damage by Particle Erosion
Abrasive wear is found predominantly in conveying equipment, but in pipelines and apparatus erosive wear is more typical, and is caused by tribological stressing during the flow of fluids, usually with the involvement of solid
particles. Unlike the welded joints in apparatus, the butt welds in pipelines can normally only be made from the outside. Depending on geometrical factors (e.g., edge misalignment, difference in wall thickness) and the welding
method, weld seam roots are often produced which have a very considerable sag. This can cause a great reduction in the flow cross section and also, depending on the flow conditions, marked turbulences behind the roots. Figure
(28) shows a section of a pipe made of St 35.8 (unalloyed steel) in which the carbon black content in a liquid mixture of organic compounds caused a breach in the wall after 15 months' operating time as a result of
hydroabrasion. The wall retained its original thickness only a few centimeters behind the point of turbulence, which illustrates the effect of the angle of incidence of the particle on the surface.
High mechanical stressing occurs when dispersions of plastics are atomized at high pressure. Under some circumstances the acceleration in a cone leading to the jet hole (a few tenths of a millimeter in diameter) and passage
through the hole can change the geometry of a jet in a very short time by erosion. This can affect hard metals and oxide ceramics as well as steel. Due to the forces of acceleration produced in centrifugal pumps, they are
particularly liable to hydroabrasive wear. Corrosion-resistant pumps made of cast CrNi (1.4408) had to be replaced after only 6 months' operating time; this was due to the erosion damage shown in Figure (29) because the sharp
-edged CuBi catalyst suspended in the aqueous solution had almost eroded through the pump cover.
Even a ducted-wheel pump made of G-X3 CrNiMoCu 24 6 (Noridur 9.4460) hardly lasted any longer, but the tempered and quenched cast alloy G-X170 CrMo 25 2 (Niroloy NL 262) had a service life of several years.
Page: 9
When solid particles are carried in a gas stream and not in a guided liquid stream, any changes in flow direction are very important as, due to the large difference in density, the solid particles are pressed with high force on to
the tube surface which guides the flow. The velocities of the transported gas may be very high and then, as a result of intensive sliding jet wear at localized points, lead to short term, but usually accelerated, loss of wall thickness
and to rupture of the tube bends.
An example of this is provided by bends from tube furnaces for the production, for example, of ethylene. Because of the high operating temperatures of over 900 °C, the required creep strength and oxidation resistance are
usually obtained by using high-alloy materials (e.g., 30 % Cr, 30 % Ni) and considerably increasing the wall thickness at the bends. Figure (30) shows localized penetration of this type. The wear stressing occurs during repeated
decoking with superheated steam.
A comparable situation occurs in waste heat boilers that utilize the high temperature of synthesis gas (CO, H2) produced in an oil gasification plant for generating steam. Condensing and solidifying particles of slag often form a
dense and tightly adhering coating in the gas-carrying tubes, with the result that over a long period the system provides its own protection against jet wear on the heat-resistant, low-alloy steels used. When there are changes in
the mode of operation, this protective action often fails locally — the gas velocity apparently plays an important role here — and the protective layer and the tube elbow are worn away in a very restricted area, as if with a
milling cutter (Fig. (31)).
Superimposition of flow and transient stressing by particles in the gas flow, which is characteristic of impact wear and inclined jet wear, is not found to any great extent in chemical plants but does occur in power stations. It
affects the first contact heating surfaces where the ash particles, at temperatures up to 1000 °C rising at ca. 10 m/s with the flue gas, lead to impact jet wear. These tubes, which are under high steam pressure, are therefore
usually protected with heat-resistant wear-protecting half shells. In the case described, comparative tests have shown that high-alloy austenitic alloys (with 25 % Cr, 20 % Ni, and Si) last longer than high-chromium ferritic steels
that have been plasma coated with an oxide layer (Fig. (32)). It is assumed that metallurgical changes and chemical reactions caused by the high temperature combine with the purely mechanical stressing to form the complex
outward appearance.
However, if the wear-induced break occurs in steam tubes, the expanding steam escaping at high velocity causes erosion on adjacent tubes. Although in this case there are again solid particles entrained in the flue gas,
microscopic observation of the affected surface shows that, unlike the situation with particle jet wear, there is an ripple structure, typical of steam jet action (Fig. (33)).
Continued ...
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References
5.4. Solid Particles — Free Erosion
Heat transfer systems are one of the basic requirements of thermal process technology. Depending on the purpose of the heat exchange, the terms evaporator, liquefier or condenser, super-heater, boiler, and many others, are also
used.
If the flows of material taking part in the heat transfer are separated from one another by walls, the process is called indirect heat exchange. In general, the flow conditions and prevailing thermal conditions are sufficiently
defined and maintained, so only in critical cases does mechanical damage occur by erosion alone.
Liquid erosion damage is to be expected if heating steam contains a proportion of condensate — again dependent on the angle of incidence. When compared with austenitic steels, steam-heated, high-pressure pipes made of low-
alloy ferritic steel prove to be insufficiently resistant if the heating is carried out with incompletely dried steam at 2 MPa (Fig. (34)).
Rotary compressors include liquid ring pumps, in which a rotor eccentric to the housing opens and closes chambers of different sizes with the aid of a liquid ring; they are used as compressors and vacuum pumps. Under some
circumstances cavitation of spontaneously vaporizing liquid can lead to damage to the rotor at the narrowest gap between the rotor and the housing, as in the example shown in Figure (35), where the rotor is made of nodular cast
iron GGG 42. The different resistance to cavitational stressing can be seen clearly on the surface, where the harder iron phosphide eutectic is largely retained, while the iron matrix has been worn away (Fig. (36)). There is also
the possibility that a certain corrosive component has contributed to the damage, so this may be a case of cavitation corrosion.
Comparable conditions also caused the damage shown in the following examples. Damage occurred only in the region of the gas inlet of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger in which the tubes carry water in closed circuit for
cooling. This was because local vaporization of the water followed immediately by collapse of the vapor bubbles led to deep holes, while immediately after the gas inlet point the existing protective layer remained completely
undamaged on the unalloyed steel. The weakening visible in the micrograph resembles that of pitting corrosion, and clearly the already broken protective layer remains electrochemically active so that a corrosive removal
mechanism is superimposed. The hammering effect of the micro jet becomes obvious from Figure (37). In steam turbines even a chromium steel X 20 Cr 13 with otherwise good resistance properties is permanently damaged by
impingement of droplets at a water content of approximately 8 % at room temperature (Fig. (38)).
A type of drop impingement can also lead to purely mechanical damage and deformation on such parts where a liquid-filled gap, in this case between parts of a canned motor pump made of steel 1.4408, is submitted to transient
stressing in the axial direction with simultaneous oscillating radial movement without contact between the metal surfaces (Fig. (39)).
The reason for this unusual type of stressing was incorrect assembly in which the jointed parts had not been correctly secured.
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Continued ...
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References
5.5. Damage Caused by Erosion – Corrosion
The chemical resistance of many metals to electrolytes is achieved because the reaction products adhere to the surface, hindering ionic transport that controls the electrochemical dissolution process. Guide values can therefore
be provided, for example, for the maximum velocity of drinking water up to which certain copper alloys, steels, and titanium retain their protective coatings, and only when the measured values are exceeded is removal of the
protective layer to be expected. In many cases unalloyed steel and cooling water operating under defined flow conditions represent the most economical solution for heat exchangers in the chemical industry. Even then, the
alternating actions of erosion and corrosion can cause significant damage due to the design and the associated changes in flow direction, although with smooth flow it is possible to maintain a protective covering layer for many
years.
Cases of this type of damage can be clearly demonstrated in heat exchangers from a CO conversion process in which the gas preheats the recirculating water (nominal pressure 6.4 MPa) to a maximum of 220 °C: excessive water
velocities through perforated impact plates, at changes in direction, and at tube openings through baffles prevented the formation of a complete protective layer; this led to progressive wear through liquid erosion accelerated by
electrolytic dissolution of the metal (Fig. (40)). It was possible to eliminate this type of erosion on the internal surfaces of vessels completely and permanently when they were spray-coated with stainless Cr – Ni steel.
Loss of material by preferential erosion – corrosion caused by the flow conditions can be seen at a product outlet connection of a wash column made of 15 Mo 3 (DN 300). The high velocity together with the slightly corrosive
medium is entirely responsible for the loss in wall thickness (Fig. (41)).
Occasionally the free fall of a corrosive liquid is also sufficient to remove protective layers and promote the corrosion process, as can be seen in a melting apparatus for dodecanedioic acid (Fig. (42)).
Crystalline acid with a moisture content of 10 – 20 % is fed through a filling hopper and melted by heating tubes made of 18-8 CrNi steel, and the vapor produced is driven off. This damage, a combination of erosion and
corrosion, occurred at the region of highest temperature. The complex stress profile of the extruder screw may also be demonstrated with the example of a kneader for unvulcanized rubber, in which, as a result of a localized
escape of fumaric acid and very small quantities of water, serious damage occurred within one day due to superimposed erosion and corrosion of a kneading element made of quenched and tempered ionitrided chromium steel X
35 CrMo 17 (Fig. (43)).
Conclusion. In chemical plants the problems of wear play a significantly smaller role than those of errosion. Damage in the component equipment and pipelines is met relatively rarely, although abrasion and erosion can
occasionally be very detrimental to the potential availability of the plant components at risk. However, it is a different question with machines and conveying units, in which exceptionally high wear stresses can sometimes result
from the influence of high flow velocities and high accelerations at housing walls, and especially at sliding seal elements. The manufacturing industries make use of the most modern materials technology to control these
problems. Nevertheless, design measures also have to be chosen so that components which are exposed to particular stresses and have limited service lives are designed as easily replaceable wearing parts.
Continued ...
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6. References
 [1] BMFT-Report: Damit Rost und Verschleiß nicht Milliarden fressen, BMFT, Bonn 1984.
 [2] B. Genath: "Der Verschleiß ist das Sorgenkind im Maschinenbau," VDI-Nachr. 52 (1971) no. 47, 1, 6, 7.
 [3] DIN 50 320:Verschleiß, Begriffe – Systemanalyse von Verschleißvorgängen, Gliederungen der Verschleißgebiete, Dec. 1979.
Page: 11
 [4] K. H. Zum Gahr: "Grundlagen des Verschleißes," in: Metallische und nichtmetallische Werkstoffe und ihre Verarbeitungsverfahren im Vergleich, part III, VDI-Ber. 600.3 (1987) 29 – 56.
 [5] H. Uetz, K. Sommer: "Abrasiv-Gleitverschleiß," in: H. Uetz (ed.): Abrasion und Erosion, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1986, pp. 108 – 157.
 [6] K. H. Zum Gahr: "Einfluß des Makroaufbaus von Stahl/Polymer-Faserverbundwerkstoffen auf den Abrasivverschleiß," Z. Werkstofftech. 16 (1985) 297 – 305.
 [7] H. Wahl: "Verschleißprobleme im Braunkohlenbergbau," Braunkohle Wärme Energie 3 (1951) 75 – 87.
 [8] R. Schulmeister: "Zur Untersuchung der Werkstoffzerstörung durch Kavitation und Korrosion mit Ultraschall-Koppelschwingern," Metalloberfläche 21 (1967) no. 1, 17 – 25.
 [9] H. Rieger: Kavitation und Tropfenschlag, Werkstofftechnische Verlagsgesellschaft, Karlsruhe 1977.
 [10] H. Brauer, E. Kriegel: "Probleme des Verschleißes von Rohrleitungen beim pneumatischen und hydraulischen Feststofftransport," Maschinenmarkt 71 (1965) no. 68, 140 – 151.
 [11] J. M. Hutchings: "Some Comments on the Theoretical Treatment of Erosive Particle Impacts," Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Erosion by Solid and Liquid Impact, Cambridge 1979.
 [12] G. Gommel: Stoßuntersuchungen Stahlkugel/Stahlplatte im Zusammenhang mit Strahlmittelzertrümmerung und Strahlverschleiß, Dissertation, TH Stuttgart 1966.
 [13] J. S. Rinehard, J. Pearson: Behavior of Metals Under Impulsive Load, American Society of Metals, Cleveland 1954.
 [14] K. Wellinger, H. Uetz: "Strahlverschleiß," Tech. Rundsch., 8 (1958) 1 – 8.
 [15] J. Föhl: "Strahl- und Spülverschleiß," in: K. H. Zum Gahr (ed.): Reibung und Verschleiß, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Metallkunde, Oberursel 1983, pp. 157 – 176.
 [16] H.-G. Heitmann, W. Kastner: "Erosionskorrosion in Wasser-Dampf-Kreisläufen – Ursachen und Gegenmaßnahmen, VGB Kraftwerkstech. 62 (1982) 211 –219.
 [17] H. Tischner: "Korrosionserscheinungen in strömenden Medien am Beispiel von Chemiepumpen," Chem. Ing. Tech. 62 (1989) no. 3, 220 – 228.
 [18] C. Razim, C. Düll, W. Räuchle: "Über die Beeinflussung der Bauteil-Grundeigenschaften durch Verschleißschutzschichten," VDI-Ber. 333 (1979) 11 – 22.
 [19] K. Wellinger, H. Uetz: "Gleitverschleiß, Spülverschleiß, Strahlverschleiß unter der Wirkung von körnigen Stoffen," VDI-Forschungsh. 449, ed. B(1955) no. 21.
 [20] M. Y. Gürleyik: Gleitverschleißuntersuchungen an Metallen und nichtmetallischen Hartstoffen unter Wirkung körniger Gegenstoffe, Dissertation, TH Stuttgart 1967.
 [21] F. Henke: "Niedrig- und hochlegierter verschleiß-fester Vergütungsstahlguß," Gießerei-Prax. 1975, no. 23/24, 377 – 407.
 [22] M. M. Krushchov, M. A. Babichev: "Experimental Fundaments of Abrasive Wear Theory," Russ. Eng. J. (Engl. Transl.) (1964) no. 6, pp. 43 – 48.
 [23] H. Uetz, K. J. Groß: "Strahlverschleiß," in: H. Uetz (ed.): Abrasion und Erosion, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1986, pp. 236 – 278.
 [24] J. G. A. Bitter: "A Study of Erosion Phenomena," Part I: Wear 6 (1963) 5 – 21; Part II: Wear 6 (1963) 69 – 190.
 [25] W. Wahl: "Unterschiedliche Werkstoffbewährung bei abrasiv beanspruchten Bauteilen," VDI-Ber. 600.3 (1987) 245 – 286.
 [26] K. Heil: Erosionskorrosion an unlegierten Eisenwerkstoffen in schnellströmenden Wässern, Dissertation, TH Darmstadt 1979.
 [27] D. Kuron: "Korrosion durch Kühlwasser und Schutzmaßnahmen," in W. J. Bartz (ed.): Die Praxis des Korrosionsschutzes, Expert Verlag, Grafenau 1981.
 [28] H. Sick: "Die Erosionsbeständigkeit von Kupferwerkstoffen gegenüber strömendem Wasser," Werkst. Korros. 23 (1972) no. 1, 12 – 18.
 [29] H. Grein: "Kavitation – eine Übersicht," Sulzer Forschungsh. 1974, 87 – 112.
 [30] H. H. Piltz: Werkstoffzerstörung durch Kavitation, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1966.
 [31] W. J. Rheingans: "Cavitation in Hydraulic Turbines," Symp. on Erosion and Cavitation, ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. 307 (1962) 17 – 31.
 [32] K. H. Habig: Verschleiß und Härte von Werkstoffen, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1980, p. 215.
 [33] H. Uetz, J. Wiedemeyer: Tribologie der Polymere, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1985.
 [34] J. Wiedemeyer: "Deutung des tribologischen Verhaltens ungeschmierter Thermoplaste auf der Basis von Modellrechnungen sowie experimentellen Ergebnissen," Fortschr. Ber. VDI Z. Reihe 5 96 (1985).
 [35] J. K. Lancaster: "Abrasive Wear of Polymers," Wear 14 (1969) 223 – 239.
 [36] K. Wellinger, H. Uetz, G. Gommel: "Verschleiß durch Wirkung von körnigen mineralischen Stoffen," Materialprüfung 9 (1967) no. 5, 153 – 160.
 [37] H.-D. Ruprecht: "Elastomere-Polyurethane," in: H. Uetz (ed.): Abrasion und Erosion, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1986, pp. 438 – 450.
 [38] H. P. Lachmann: "Elastomere-Gummi," in H. Uetz (ed.): Abrasion und Erosion, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1986, pp. 451 – 465.
 [39] H. Brauer, E. Kriegel: "Untersuchungen über den Verschleiß von Kunststoffen und Metallen," Chem. Ing. Techn. 35 (1963) 697 – 707.
 [40] K. Wellinger, H. Uetz: "Verschleiß durch körnige mineralische Stoffe," Aufbereit. Tech. 4 (1963) 193 – 204, 319 – 335.
 [41] E. Dörre: "Nichtmetallische Hartstoffe," in H. Uetz (ed.): Abrasion und Erosion, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1986, pp. 451 – 465.
 [42] W. Wahl, I. Kretschmer, J. Wabnegger: "Auftragschweißen," in H. Uetz (ed.): Abrasion und Erosion, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1986, pp. 374 –394.
 [43] H. Gräfen: "Beschichtungen in der Chemietechnik," in: Beschichtungen für Hochleistungs-Bauteile, VDI-Ber. 624 (1986) 273 – 296.
 [44] H.-M. Höhle: "Thermische Spritzverfahren," in: Beschichtungen für Hochleistungs-Bauteile, VDI-Ber. 624 (1986) 71 – 83.
 [45] F. Wendl: "Aktuelle Trends bei der Oberflächenbehandlung von Werkzeugen in der Kunststoffverarbeitung," Thyssen Edelstahl Tech. Ber. 15 (1989) no. 2, 110 – 125.
 [46] H.-A. Mathesius: "Herstellen von verschleißfesten Schichten mit Hilfe von CVD-Verfahren," in: Beschichtungen für Hochleistungs-Bauteile, VDI-Ber. 624 (1986) 37 – 48.
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 [47] H. Weiß: "Elektrochemische Beschichtung und Sonderverfahren der Oberflächentechnik," Thyssen Edelstahl Tech. Ber. 15 (1989) no. 2, 85 – 114.
 [48] H. Simon, M. Thoma: Angewandte Oberflächentechnik für metallische Werkstoffe, Carl Hanser Verlag, München – Wien 1985.
 first occurrence in article
Abrasion and Erosion - Table 1
Fixed costs and personnel costs caused by abrasive and erosive wear in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1984
Sector Costs, 109 DM

Mining 1.66
Foundry industry 1.2
Quarrying 1.1
Building 1.53
Plastics industry 0.75
Power engineering 0.16
Total 6.4
 first occurrence in article
Classifaction of types of wear (based on DIN 50 320)
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ABRASION AND EROSION - Table 3 (Klaus Schneemann)
first occurrence in article
Comparison of the characteristics of abrasive sliding, abrasive impact, and three-body abrasive wear
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Performance properties of wear resistant materials
Material Tensile strength, MPa Fracture strain, % Wear resistance

Low-alloy austenitic manganese steel 600 15 very low
Austenitic manganese hard steel 550 50 medium
Unalloyed steels 420 20 extremely low
High-strength low-alloy steels 600 18 extremely low
Pearlitic steels 500 – 600 12 extremely low
Martensitic steels 500 – 600 15 – 20 medium
Ledeburitic steels 600 2 high
Heat-treated 66 (gray cast iron) 250 < 0.5 very low
Heat-treated 666 (nodular iron) 500 3 low
Pearlitic white cast iron 250 < 0.5 high
Martensitic white cast iron 350 < 0.5 very high
High-chromium white cast iron 500 < 0.5 very high
Co – Cr – W – C alloy 500 < 0.5 very high
Hard metal 500 < 0.5 extremely high
Maximum permissible flow rates for pure water and seawater
Material Flow rate, m/s

Pure water Seawater
Aluminum 1.2 – 1.5 1.0
Copper 1.8 1.0
Copper + As 2.1 1.0
Copper + Fe 4.0 1.5
CuZn28Sn 2.0 – 2.4 1.5 – 2.0
Al bronze ca. 3.0 ca. 2.0
CuNi10Fe 5.0 2.4
CuNi30Fe 6.0 4.5
Steel 3–6 2–5
Nickel alloys 30 15 – 25
Plastics 6–8 6–8
Jet wear of polymers and metals
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Material Hardness Abrasive * Relative wear W/WSt37

Steel T 80 H 590 HV II 0.109
Polyurethane 18 Shore D II 0.143
Poly(vinyl chloride) 5 Shore D II 0.143
Polyurethane 34 Shore D II 0.403
Rubber 17 Shore D II 0.57
Steel St 37 122 HV I 1.0
Low-pressure polyethylene 60 Shore D I 1.06
Steel St 34 124 HV I 1.07
Polyamide 6, Grilon R 50 62 Shore D I 1.33
Polyamide 6, Grilon R 70 64 Shore D I 1.33
Copper 99 HV I 1.36
High-pressure polyethylene 42 Shore D II 1.4
Low-pressure polyethylene 58 Shore D II 1.4
Polyamide 11, Rilsan Besvo 71 Shore D I 1.81
Low-pressure polyethylene 58 Shore D I 2.0
Low-pressure polyethylene 60 Shore D II 2.0
Polyamide 6, Ultramid 70 Shore D I 2.21
Aluminum 39 HV II 2.68
Brass 150 HV I 2.76
Aluminum 29 HV II 3.23
Polyamide 11 69 Shore D I 3.31
Resitex 89 Shore D II 8.2
Glass 6 – 7 Mohs II 9.7
Lead 4 HV II 10.5
Plexiglas 85 Shore D II 10.75
Pertinax 92 Shore D II 18.5
Epoxy resin with glass fiber 86 Shore D II 19.5
Epoxy resin with hardener and quartz powder 84 Shore D II 31
* Abrasive I: sand, HV = 5000 MPa, particle size ≤ 0.9 mm; Abrasive II: sand, HV = 7200 – 8100 MPa, particle size 0.3 – 0.5 mm
Hard materials
Material mp, °C r, g/cm3 Vickers hard-

ness HV0.2
Oxides
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Al2O3 2050 3.9 2300

ZrO2 2700 5.7 1100
TiO2 1860 4.2 1000
Carbides
TiC 3150 4.9 3200
TaC 3780 14.5 1790
WC 2600 15.7 2080
SiC 2180 3.2 3000
B4C 2450 2.5 3500
Nitrides
TiN 2950 5.2 2450
TaN 3090 13.8 3230
Si3N4 1900 3.2 1400
BN (cubic) 3000 * 3.48 8000
Borides
TiB2 2900 4.4 3480
ZrB2 2990 6.0 2200
Carbon
Diamond 3750 3.5 8000 – 10 000
* Sublimes.
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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 1
Mechanisms of material damage in furrow wear

A) Microplowing; B) Microcutting; C) Microfatigue; D) Microgouging
Profile of a wear groove
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Dependence of the abrasive wear resistance of metallic materials on the hardness of the material (A) and on the ratio of the particle hardness to the factor fab (B), measured by the abrasive paper method, (SiC, 80 grain, p = 3.54
MPa)
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Schematic representation of the abrasive wear resistance in the upper shelf and the wear mechanisms plotted versus the material hardness
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Lower and upper shelf wear characteristic (abrasive paper method, 80 grain, p = 0.37 MPa)
Dependence of drop impingement wear (wear depth per centimeter impinging liquid column) on the impact velocity for various materials
a) Glass; b) Aluminum; c) Polyurethane; d) Sintered alumina
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Path of motion of hydraulically transported particles of various densities and diameters (calculated for water at 18 °C and a flow rate of 2 m/s)
Energy balance for the impact, without breakage, of a hard particle on a ductile metal surface
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Variation of the calculated impact force of a sphere (diameter 1 mm, velocity 100 m/s) with time for:
a) C60H; b) St 37; c) Rubber
Influence of the jet angle on the wear rate

a) Rubber; b) St 37; c) C60H
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Dependence of wear intensity on the hardness of the abrasive particles for counterbody furrowing for various materials (abrasive paper method, p = 0.1 MPa, v = 0.25 m/s)
a) Rubber; b) Polystyrene; c) Cast basalt; d) Steel St 37; e) C60H; f) Hard metal G4; g) Hard metal H2
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Dependence of wear intensity on the hardness of the abrasive particles for particle furrowing for various materials
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Wear resistance of cast iron towards particle furrowing (wear pot method, quartz sand)
a) Martensitic cast iron alloyed with Cr and Ni; b) Unalloyed and low-alloy pearlitic cast iron; c) Steels with 0.15 – 0.5 % C and gray cast iron with lamellar or spheroidal graphite
Linear relationship between wear resistance and hardness in the upper shelf region (abrasive paper method, corundum, 180 grain, p = 0.94 MPa)
Page: 9
Impact jet and sliding jet components in jet wear

a) Experimental curve for cast iron (2.8 % C, 21 % Cr); b) Experimental curve for St 37; c) Impact jet component for cast iron; d) Impact jet component for St 37; e) Sliding jet component for cast iron; f) Sliding jet component
for St 37
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Maximum tolerable flow rates (water) as a function of material hardness for various copper alloys
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Relationship between wear and the reciprocal product of tensile strength S and fracture strain ε for polymers
1) Poly(methyl methacrylate); 2) Low-density polyethylene; 3) Polystyrene; 4) Polyoxymethylene; 5) Polyamide 66; 6) Polypropylene; 7) Epoxy resin; 8) Polytetrafluoroethylene; 9) PMMA – acrylonitrile copolymer; 10)
Polyester; 11) Polychlorotrifluoroethylene; 12) Polycarbonate; 13) Polyamide 11; 14) ABS; 15) Poly(phenylene oxide); 16) Polysulfone; 17) Poly(vinyl chloride); 18) Poly(vinylidene chloride)
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Wear relative to St 37 as a function of impact angle for various materials (abrasive: quartz sand, particle size 0.2 – 1.5 mm, HV = 1250)
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Dependence of jet wear on the jet angle and the hardness of the impinging mineral
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Sliding wear on copper tubes of a heat exchanger for oxygen
Sliding wear damage on the rotary piston of a Roots compressor for ammonia
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Surface destruction of a ball-bearing inner race as a result of intermittent axial overloading
Tribochemical reaction and surface destruction on the brass piston of an oxygen compressor
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Three-body abrasive wear, caused by carbon black, on a draining screw, hard-faced with Hastelloy C, used for unvulcanized rubber
Impact ribs (18 % Cr steel) of a wet comminution mill eroded by water containing carbon black
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Abrasive wear caused by glass-fiber-containing polypropylene on the high-alloy protective coating (60 % Ni, 18 % Co, 2 % Mo, 1 % C) of a screw housing
Abrasive wear on the inner rotor of a canned pump caused by adhering magnetite particles
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Hydroabrasive wear caused by a liquid containing carbon black in an unalloyed steel pipe as a result of turbulences behind a weld
Pump cover (18-8 CrNi cast) eroded by sharp-edged catalyst particles in the liquid
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Bend in a tube furnace for ethylene production, worn by sliding jet wear (material: CrNi 30/30 alloy)
Tube elbow of a waste heat boiler whose protective coating has been worn away in a restricted area by inclined jet wear, which ultimately penetrated the tube
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Plasma-coated protective shell of a steam superheater tube, damaged by impact jet wear at ca. 1000 °C
Scanning electron micrograph of the surface of a steam tube (material: 12 % Cr steel) damaged by a steam jet
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Steam-heated high-pressure pipe showing liquid erosion damage due to condensate carried with the steam
Cavitation damage on a cast iron pump rotor
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Micrograph of the rotor shown in Figure (35); although the iron matrix has been removed by cavitation, the more resistant iron phosphide eutectic remained unaffected
Cavitation erosion in a steel (St. 35.8) heat exchanger tube due to excessive heating
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Impingement attack on a steam turbine blade (X 20 Cr 13)
Surface destruction of the case (18-8 CrNi steel) of a canned motor pump
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Due to the high flow velocity of the cooling water, the protective layer was removed from heat exchanger tubes (St. 35.8) and sheets (St. 37), leading to intensive erosion – corrosion
Erosion – corrosion due to turbulence of the liquid caused by the reduction in diameter of a pipe (nominal diameter 300 mm, 15 Mo 5)
Page: 25
Erosion – corrosion caused by dripping molten acid (material: 18-8 CrNi steel)
Superposition of erosion and corrosion in a kneading element of a rubber extruder (material: X 35 CrMo 17, ionitrided)
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Abrasion and Erosion

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Abrasion and Erosion

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Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Sixth Edition, 2002 Electronic Release

ABRASION AND EROSION - Abrasion and Erosion (Klaus Schneemann)

Abrasion and Erosion

2. Types of Wear and Wear Mechanisms

3.2. Plastics and Elastomers

4. Surface Treatment and Coatings

5. Practical Examples of Abrasion and Erosion Damage

5.1. Sliding Wear, Elastic Rolling Wear, and Oscillation Wear

5.2. Abrasion Wear

5.3. Damage by Particle Erosion

5.4. Solid Particles — Free Erosion

5.5. Damage Caused by Erosion – Corrosion

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Abrasion and Erosion - Table 1

Sector Costs, 109 DM

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Abrasion and Erosion - Table 2

Classifaction of types of wear (based on DIN 50 320)

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Abrasion and Erosion - Table 3

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Abrasion and Erosion - Table 4

Performance properties of wear resistant materials

Material Tensile strength, MPa Fracture strain, % Wear resistance

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Abrasion and Erosion - Table 5

Maximum permissible flow rates for pure water and seawater

Material Flow rate, m/s

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Abrasion and Erosion - Table 6

Jet wear of polymers and metals

Material Hardness Abrasive * Relative wear W/WSt37

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Abrasion and Erosion - Table 7

Material mp, °C r, g/cm3 Vickers hard-

Al2O3 2050 3.9 2300

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 1

Mechanisms of material damage in furrow wear

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 2

Profile of a wear groove

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 3

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 4

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 5

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 6

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 7

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 8

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 9

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 10

Influence of the jet angle on the wear rate

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 11

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Abrasion and Erosion - Figure 12

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