Chapter-2

Fundamentals of the Theory of Damages

Chapter Outline
 Introduction to Damages
 Classification of Damages
 Reasons for Damages
 Behavior of Damages
 Typical Damages of Equipment
 Wear
 Corrosion
 Fatigue
 Lubrication

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 2.1. INTRODUCTION
 Damages are causes for the loss of functionality or workability of a
means of production, if proper action is not taken against them.
 Even with optimum design and operation conditions damages are
unavoidable.
 Thus damages are the reasons for the existence of a maintenance
organization.
2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF DAMAGES

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 2.3. REASONS FOR DAMAGES
 Objective: Those are damages caused by operational processes and
environmental causes.
 Subjective: These are caused by failure in design, manufacturing,
use operation and maintenance.
2.4. BEHAVIOR OF DAMAGES
 Sudden Behavior:- use-value of equipment diminishes instantly, in
other words, sudden breakdown of equipment takes place.
 Continuous Behavior:- The use-value of equipment decreases with
time due to wear.

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 2.4. TYPICAL DAMAGES OF EQUIPMENT
 Damages resulting from technological processes are basically
classified in to three: corrosion, wear and tear, and fatigue.
1. Corrosion
 It is the destruction or deterioration of materials by chemical or
electrochemical reaction with the environment. This includes the
destruction of metals in all types of atmospheres and liquids, and at
any temperature.
 Corrosion is usually superficial but it sometimes is directed along
grain boundaries or other lines of weakness.
The Process of Corrosion
 Direct Chemical Corrosion: is limited to conditions involving
highly corrosive environments or high temperature or both.
Examples: corrosion of metals left open in damp environments and
at high temperature; metals in contact with strong acids or alkalis.
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 Cont.…
 Electrochemical Corrosion: is characterized by movement of
metallic ions in solutions.
Examples: When zinc is placed in dilute hydrochloride acid a
vigorous reaction occurs, hydrogen gas is evolved and zinc dissolves
to form zinc chloride.
This reaction can be divided into the anodic and cathode reactions.
Kinds of Corrosion
Based on the appearance of the corroded materials mostly metal
corrosion can be classified as
a) Surface Corrosion (uniform attack)
 This is the most common form of corrosion manifest over the
entire exposed surface or over a large area.
 It is caused by influence of ambient conditions
Its characteristic features are:
a)Surface is destroyed nearly parallel to the surface
b)Metal becomes thinner and eventually may fail
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 Cont.…
b) Pitting Corrosion
 Most destructive and insidious kind of corrosion
 Caused to equipment failure because of perforation with only a
small percent weight loss of entire equipment
The characteristic features of pitting corrosion are:
 Difficult to detect because of their small size and often are
covered with corrosion products.
 Localized destruction of material (surface)
 It can take place below the surface affecting the stresses
(invisible).
Uniform Corrosion

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 Cont.…
c) Inter-crystalline Corrosion:
 Takes place below the surface
 Occurs at the grain boundary of metal alloys that causes sudden
crack.
d) Trans-crystalline Corrosion:
 Occurs through the grains of metal alloys.
e) Galvanic Corrosion (two-metal Corrosion)
 Associated with the current of a galvanic cell made up of two
dissimilar metals.
 Potential difference usually exists between two dissimilar metals
when they are immersed in a corrosive solution.

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 Cont.…

Factors Stimulating Corrosion

 Damp atmosphere
 Acids, acid gases in the atmosphere
 Contact of dissimilar metals
 Corrosion on metals under stress is much more severe than under
ordinary conditions.
 Salts that dissociate in water producing acid reactions
Methods of Minimizing Corrosion
 Coating
 protective paints
 Rendering the surface of the metal passive 8
 Cont.…

2. Wear
 Wear is undesired change of surface of machine components by the
removal of little particles caused by mechanical reasons.
 Mostly wear is caused by friction of two mating parts.
The formation of wear by friction, conditions are
 There must be a pair of contacting wear partners
 A normal force must act maintaining contact
 There must exist relative motion between the contacting surfaces
 Other factors like temperature, moisture, chips, dust, harmful gases
etc.
Kinds of wear and tear: Depending on the motion we have
- Kinematics wear:-
- sliding - rolling - drilling - mixed
- Static wear
- Impact wear 9
 Cont.…
Depending on time behavior of wear we have:-
- Stationary wear: Constant wear intensity over time.
- Non-stationary wear: intensity depends on time.

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 Cont.…
Mechanisms of Wear

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 Cont.…
A. Stress Interactions
 These are due to the combined action of load forces and frictional
forces
 Lead to wear processes namely:
surface fatigue, and
abrasion.
i. Surface Fatigue Wear Mechanisms
 Occurs mainly due to the action of stresses in or below the
surfaces without needing a direct physical solid contact of the
surfaces under consideration.
 The effect of fatigue wear is especially associated with repeated
stress cycling in rolling contact and results in crack formation
and propagation 12
 Cont.…
ii. Abrasive Wear Mechanisms
 Occurs in which direct physical contact between two surfaces is given where
one of the surfaces is considerably harder than the other.

B. Materials Interactions

i. Tribochemical Wear Mechanism

 In tribochemical wear the dynamic interactions between the
material components and the environment determine the wear
process where the environment is the third partner.
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 Cont.…
ii. Adhesive Wear Mechanisms
 Adhesion is the ability of atomic structures to hold themselves
together and form surface bonds with other atoms or surfaces with
which they come into contact.
 The mechanism of adhesive wear is the removal of material from
one or both mating surfaces by the action of particles from one of
the surfaces bonding to the other.

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 Cont.…
Wear Processes
A. Shearing Process
Roughness points will be sheared off if the acting forces are greater
than the shear strength. This leads to the reduction of roughness and
increased percentage of contact area which reduces energy
concentration and wear velocity.
B. Elastic Deformation
Big surface roughness result in low percentage of contact area and
high energy concentration in contact point. This may result in high
local stresses. In the elastic range this causes small flattening or
bending of roughness points. Repetition of this process will cause local
fatigue of material.
C. Plastic Deformation
If the local stress produced exceeds the elastic limit, plastic
deformation takes place in flattening and bending the material (no
loss in mass). 15
 WEAR TYPES
 Depending on the application of lubricants, wear can be classified as
1. Wear by Solid friction
 Solid friction occurs between the contacting surfaces of two bodies
having relative motion where there is no intermediate material.
 Wear by solid friction results in heating of the surfaces.
2. Wear by Liquid Friction
 The two mating bodies are completely separated from each other by
an intermediate material mostly lubricant.
 Friction occurs in the lubricant and wear is influenced by load,
relative velocity, temperature, viscosity of lubricant,
3. Wear by Mixed Friction
 Simultaneous action of solid and liquid friction caused by high
roughness or high load for the lubricating film causes wear by mixed
friction. 16
 Protection Against Wear
 Main protection measurement against wear is lubrication.
 A lubricant is the intermediate material between two parts with
relative motion for the purpose of reducing friction and/or wear
between them.

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