STEMFIELD INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

SESSION -2022-2023
CLASS – XI SCIENCE

CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

TOPIC –
PERIODICITY OF ELEMENTS IN PERIODIC TABLE

SUBMITTED TO – SUBMITTED BY-

Mrs. Amrita Singh Aditi Khandelwal
Roll No. – 11A01
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Aditi Khandelwal,

student of Class XI Science has successfully
completed their Chemistry Project on
“Periodicity of Element in Periodic Table”
under the guidance of Mrs. Amrita Singh for the
academic session 2022-23.

Teacher’s Signature Principal’s signature

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my Chemistry Teacher Mrs. Amrita
Singh as well as our respected Principal Mrs.
Manmeet Kohli who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the
topic “Periodicityof elements in periodic table”.

I would also like to thank my parents and

friends who helped me a lot in finalising this
project within the given time frame.

Aditi Khandelwal
XI Sci
11A01
 CONTENTS
❖ History:
- Dobereiner’s Triads
- Dmitri Mendeleev
❖ The Periodic Table
❖ Introduction:
- Periodicity
- Periodic Trends
▪ Atomic Radius
▪ Ionic Radius
▪ Ionisation Enthalpy
▪ Electron Gain Enthalpy
▪ Shielding Effect
▪ Elecronegativity
▪ Metallic Character
▪ Oxidation State
▪ Diagonal Relationship
❖ Bibilography
 History
DOBEREINER’S TRIADS
The German chemist, Johann Dobereiner in early 1800’s was the
first to consider the idea of trends among properties of elements.
By 1829 he noted a similarity among the physical and chemical
properties of several groups of three elements (Triads). In each
case, he noticed that the middle element of each of the Triads had
an atomic weight about half way between the atomic weights of
the other two.

Since Dobereiner’s relationship, referred to as the Law of Triads,

seemed to work only for a few elements, it was dismissed as
coincidence. The next reported attempt to classify elements was
made by a French geologist, A.E.B. de Chancourtois in 1862. He
arranged the then known elements in order of increasing atomic
weights and made a cylindrical table of elements to display the
periodic recurrence of properties. This also did not attract much
attention.
Dmitri Mendeleev
The Periodic Law, as we know it today owes its development to
the Russian chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) and the
German chemist, Lothar Meyer (1830-1895). Working
independently, both the chemists in 1869 proposed that on
arranging elements in the increasing order of their atomic
weights, similarities appear in physical and chemical
properties at regular intervals. Lothar Meyer plotted the
physical properties such as atomic volume, melting point and
boiling point against atomic weight and obtained a periodically
repeated pattern. Unlike Newlands, Lothar Meyer observed a
change in length of that repeating pattern. By 1868, Lothar
Meyer had developed a table of the elements that closely
resembles the Modern Periodic Table.
 The Periodic Table

A table of the chemical elements arranged in order of atomic

number, usually in rows, so that elements with similar atomic
structure (and hence similar chemical properties) appear in
vertical columns.

It is divided into four roughly rectangular areas called blocks. The

rows of the table are called periods, and the columns are
called groups. Elements from the same group of the periodic table
show similar chemical characteristics. Trends run through the
periodic table with nonmetallic character (keeping their own
electrons) increasing from left to right across a period, and from
down to up across a group, and metallic character (surrendering
electrons to other atoms) increasing in the opposite direction.
 INTRODUCTION
✓ Periodicity:
Periodicity refers to trends or recurring variations
in element properties with increasing atomic number.
Periodicity is caused by regular and predictable variations in
element atomic structure. The quality or character of being
periodic; the tendency to recur at intervals.
✓ Periodic Trends of Elements:
There are many observable patterns in the physical and
chemical properties of elements as we descend in a group or
move across a period in the Periodic Table. For example,
within a period, chemical reactivity tends to be high in Group
1 metals, lower in elements towards the middle of the table,
and increases to a maximum in the Group 17 non-metals.
Likewise within a group of representative metals (say alkali
metals) reactivity increases on moving down the group,
whereas within a group of non-metals (say halogens),
reactivity decreases down the group.
 • Atomic Radius
An atomic radius is half the distance between adjacent atoms of the
same element in a molecule. When two atoms are combined, then we
can estimate their atomic size by checking the distance between the
atoms. The other method by which we can measure the atomic size of
a non-metallic element is by forming a single covalent bond between
two atoms and checking the distance between the two atoms. The
radius found by this method is known as the covalent radii of the
element. In the case of metal, it is termed as a metallic radius. It is
defined as half of the total distance between the nuclei of two
adjoining metal ions joined by a metallic bond.
In general, the atomic radius decreases as we move from left to right in
a period and it increases when we go down a group. This is because in
periods the valence electrons are in the same outermost shell.
 • Ionic Radius

Ionic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an ion up to which it has
an influence on its electron cloud.

Ions are formed when an atom loses or gains electrons. When an

atom loses an electron it forms a cation and when it gains an electron it
becomes an anion. The Ionic radius can be described as the distance
between the nucleus of an ion and the outermost shell of the ion.
The atomic size of a cation will be smaller than that of the parent
atom. An anion is relatively larger in size than its parent atom. This is
because when an atom gains electrons the total number of electrons
increases which tends to create more repulsion between electrons and
thus overshadows the net effective nuclear charge.

The radius of a cation will be smaller than that of the anion as a cation
will have a greater positive charge (i.e. number of protons) so it will
attract the electrons in the outermost orbital with greater force and
hence the smaller size.
• Ionization enthalpy
The enthalpy change associated with the removal of the first electron
from an isolated gaseous atom in its ground state is called the first
ionization enthalpy. A quantitative measure of the tendency of an
element to lose electron is given by its Ionization Enthalpy. It
represents the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated
gaseous atom (X) in its ground state. In other words, the first ionization
enthalpy for an element X is the enthalpy change (∆i H) for the reaction
depicted in equation
X(g) → X+ (g) + e
The ionization enthalpy is expressed in units of kJ mol–1. We can
define the second ionization enthalpy as the energy required to
remove the second most loosely bound electron; it is the energy
required to carry out the reaction shown in equation,
X+ (g) → X2+(g) + e–
• Electron Gain Enthalpy
When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert it
into a negative ion, the enthalpy change accompanying the process is
defined as the Electron Gain Enthalpy (∆egH). Electron gain enthalpy
provides a measure of the ease with which an atom adds an electron
to form anion as represented by equation
X(g) + e– → X– (g)

Depending on the element, the process of adding an electron to the

atom can be either endothermic or exothermic. For many elements
energy is released when an electron is added to the atom and the
electron gain enthalpy is negative. For example, group 17 elements
(the halogens) have very high negative electron gain enthalpies
because they can attain stable noble gas electronic configurations by
picking up an electron. On the other hand, noble gases have large
positive electron gain enthalpies because the electron has to enter
the next higher principal quantum level leading to a very unstable
electronic configuration. It may be noted that electron gain
enthalpies have large negative values toward the upper right of the
periodic table preceding the noble gases.
 • Shielding Effect
The shielding effect is referred to as atomic shielding or electron
shielding describes the attraction between an electron and the nucleus in
any atom with more than one electron. The shielding effect can be
defined as a reduction in the effective nuclear charge on the electron
cloud, due to a difference in the attraction forces on the electrons in the
atom. It is a special case of electric-field screening. This effect also has
some significance in many projects in material sciences.

Shielding effect description:

1. It is the repulsion of valence electrons that counteracts the attraction
between these electrons and the nucleus.
2. The shielding effect increases when elements move down the group
in the periodic table because of an increase in the number of inner
orbits around the nucleus.
3. The outermost electrons of the high atomic number elements
experience the low electrostatic force of attraction due to the
repulsion that decreases the shielding effect.
4. The shielding effect for a period is constant because each period has a
fixed number of orbits around the nucleus.
5. The order of the shielding effect in the sub-shell is: s>p>d>f because
the orbitals form diffuse shapes as the effect decreases.
 • Electronegativity
A qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound
to attract shared electrons to itself is called electronegativity. Unlike
ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy, it is not a measureable
quantity. However, a number of numerical scales of electronegativity of
elements viz., Pauling scale, Mulliken-Jaffe scale, Allred-Rochow scale
have been developed.
Pauling scale is widely used to measure electronegativity. Atoms having
high electronegativity attract more electrons and form bonds. The atoms
with low electronegativity can easily lose their electrons. According to
Pauling scale fluorine has the highest electronegativity in the periodic
table and its value is 4.0, whereas caesium and francium are the least
electronegative elements with values on the Pauling scale as low as 0.7.

Trends in electronegativity across a period:

When we move from left to right in a period of the modern periodic
table, electronegativity increases. We can see this with the help of a
graph showing the trend in electronegativity in period 3 from sodium to
chlorine. In this graph, we have not shown argon as it does not react with
elements to form bonds.
Trends in electronegativity in groups:
When we go down in a group in the periodic table, electronegativity
decreases. The trend in electronegativity can be seen by the graph given
below for group 7. Here fluorine has the highest electronegativity (4.0) .
The trend is shown below.

Important exceptions of the above rules include the noble gases,

lanthanoids, and actinoids. The lanthanoids and actinoids possess
more complicated chemistry that does not generally follow any
trends. Therefore, lanthanoids, and actinoids do not have
electronegativity values.
• Metallic Character
1. Metallic character refers to the level of reactivity of a metal. Metals
tend to lose electrons in chemical reactions, as indicated by their
low ionization energies. Within a compound, metal atoms have
relatively low attraction for electrons, as indicated by their low
electronegativities.
2. Reactivity of metals is based on processes such as the formation of
halide compounds with halogens, and how easily the
element displaces hydrogen from dilute acids.
3. The metallic character increases as you go down a group. Since the
ionization energy decreases going down a group (or increases going
up a group), the increased ability for metals lower in a group to lose
electrons makes them more reactive. In addition, the atomic radius
increases going down a group, placing the outer electrons further
away from the nucleus and making that electron less attracted by
the nucleus.
4. Nonmetals tend to gain electrons in chemical reactions, and have a
high attraction for electrons within a compound. The most reactive
nonmetals reside in the upper right portion of the periodic table.
Since the noble gases are a special group because of their lack of
reactivity, the element fluorine is the most reactive nonmetal. It is
not found in nature as a free element. Fluorine gas reacts
explosively with many other elements and compounds, and is
considered to be one of the most dangerous known substances.
5. Note that there is no clear division between metallic and non-
metallic character. As we move across the periodic table, there is an
increasing tendency to accept electrons (nonmetallic) and a
decrease in the possibility that an atom will give up one or more
electrons.
 • Oxidation States or Valency
The valence is the most characteristic property of the
elements and can be understood in terms of their electronic
configurations. The valence of representative elements is
usually (though not necessarily) equal to the number of
electrons in the outermost orbitals and / or equal to eight
minus the number of outermost electrons.
• VARIATION OF OXIDATION STATE ALONG A PERIOD
While moving from left to right across a period, the
elements' number of valence electrons increases and
changes between 1 to 8. Whereas the valency of the
elements, when first combined with H or O, increases from
1 to 4, and after that, it reduces to zero. The element's
oxidation state represents the charge possessed by an
atom because of the gain or loss of electrons in the
molecule.
• VARIATION OF OXIDATION STATE WITHIN A GROUP
While we move down in a group, there occurs no change
in the number of valence electrons. Thus, all the elements
of one group hold the same valency.
• Digonal Relationship
• A diagonal relationship is said to exist between certain pairs of
diagonally adjacent elements in the second and third periods (first
20 elements) of the periodic table. These pairs lithium (Li)
and magnesium (Mg), beryllium (Be) and aluminium (Al), boron (B)
and silicon (Si), etc.) exhibit similar properties; for example, boron
and silicon are both semiconductors, forming halides that are
hydrolysed in water and have acidic oxides.
• The organization of elements on the periodic table into horizontal
rows and vertical columns makes certain relationships more
apparent (periodic law). Moving rightward and descending the
periodic table have opposite effects on atomic radii of isolated
atoms. Moving rightward across the period decreases the atomic
radii of atoms, while moving down the group will increase the
atomic radii.
• It is found that the chemistry of a period 2 element often has
similarities to the chemistry of the period 3 element one column to
the right of it in the periodic table. Thus, the chemistry of Li has
similarities to that of Mg, the chemistry of Be has similarities to that
of Al, and the chemistry of B has similarities to that of Si. These are
called diagonal relationships.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

➢ Textbook of Chemistry 11th

➢ www.google.com

➢ www.wikipedia.com

➢ www.byjus.com

➢ www.chem.libretexts.org