The Periodic Table

What Is The Periodic Table?

According to Britannica, the periodic table is a tabular array of the chemical elements organised
by atomic number, from the element with the lowest atomic number, hydrogen, to the element
with the highest atomic number, oganesson. The atomic number of an element is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element.
 The Basis For The Arrangement Of Elements In The Periodic Table

The periodic table is not simply a grid of elements arranged numerically. In the periodic table,
the elements are arranged in horizontal rows called periods and vertically into columns called
groups.

The modern table is a list of elements based on the number of protons in the nucleus. That is the
positive charge of the nucleus. The table was named the periodic table because similar properties
occur at regular intervals.

The actual layout of the periodic table is based on the grouping of the elements according to
chemical properties. For example, elements in each group of the periodic table (each vertical
column) will share many of the same chemical properties. Each element in the periodic table is
represented by a box containing the chemical symbol, the atomic number (the number of protons
in the nucleus) and the atomic mass of the element. It must be noted that the atomic mass is the
weighted average of the masses of all of the natural isotopes of the particular element.
 General Trends Of The Periodic Table In Electronegativity, Atomic Radii And
Reactivity

Electronegativity

The capacity of an atom to draw shared electrons in a covalent connection is known as

electronegativity. An element draws shared electrons more strongly the higher its
electronegativity is.

Linus Pauling first developed the idea of electronegativity in 1932. Fluorine has an
electronegativity of 3.98 on the Pauling scale, and the other elements are scaled in relation to that
number. Additional electronegativity scales include the Allred-Rochow scale, which gauges the
electrostatic attraction between an atom's nucleus and its valence electrons, and the Mulliken
scale, which was put forth by Robert S. Mulliken in 1934 and averages both the first ionisation
energy and electron affinity.

Electronegativity varies in a predictable way across the periodic table. Electronegativity

increases from bottom to top in groups, and increases from left to right across periods. Thus,
fluorine is the most electronegative element, while francium is one of the least electronegative.
Diagram Showing Electronegativity Trends On The Periodic Table
 Atomic Radii

The atomic radius refers to the distance from the nucleus of an atom to the outermost electrons. It
is used to express the size of an atom. This information is important as it aids in the
understanding of why certain molecules fit together and why parts of other molecules become
overly crowded under certain conditions.

It is not easy to determine where an atom "stops" since in quantum physics, the orbitals
surrounding an atom are defined in terms of a probability distribution and do not have definite
bounds. In order to standardise the measurement of atomic radii, the distance between the nuclei
of two identical atoms bonded together is measured. The atomic radius is defined as one-half the
distance between the nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together.
The units for atomic radii are picometers.

Periodic trend
Atoms typically have a decreasing atomic radius from left to right across a period. A few minor
exceptions exist, such as the oxygen radius being somewhat larger than the nitrogen radius.
Protons are added to the nucleus at the same time that electrons are added to the same main
energy level. The enhanced positive charge of the nucleus gradually draws these electrons closer
to it. Atoms get smaller as the force of attraction between their nuclei and electrons grows. Due
to electron-electron repulsions, which would normally cause the atom's size to rise, the effect
becomes less pronounced the further to the right one goes in a period.

Group trend
Within a group, atoms' atomic radii typically increase from top to bottom. The positive nuclear
charge rises once again as the atomic number moves down a group. On the other hand, the
quantity of occupied principal energy levels is likewise rising. Orbitals from higher principal
energy levels are bigger in size than those from lower energy levels. Atomic radius increases
down a group as a result of the increased number of principal energy levels outweighing the
increase in nuclear charge.
The Atomic Radius Of An Atom Can Be Defined As One Half The Distance Between
Two Nuclei In A Diatomic Molecule

The Atomic Radius Increases From Top To Bottom In A Group, And Decreases
From Left To Right Across A Period
 Reactivity

The trend in reactivity in the periodic table

Reactivity refers to the way that one substance chemically reacts with other substances.
Substances with high reactivity often react with an explosion. Some may even change their
colour. The periodic table can help us understand why some elements are very reactive, reactive
and not reactive.

Noble gases and Alkali metals

A neon atom has 10 electrons, and sodium has 11 electrons. The neon atom has a full valence
shell containing 8 electrons. The octet rule states that atoms prefer to have a full valence shell
therefore they don’t need to react with other atoms. The elements which fall under group
eighteen (which includes neon) are known as the noble gases as they all have a full valence shell
with the case of helium having two. This makes them unreactive.

A sodium atom has a single electron on a valence shell. The octet rule states that atoms without a
complete valence shell will try to get rid of the electrons on the incomplete valence shell by
means of a chemical reaction. Atoms form bonds by transferring or sharing their atom/atoms. For
example, a sodium atom can transfer its atom to a chlorine atom causing a chemical reaction and
forming table salt. Sodium along with the other elements from group one (known as alkali
metals) all have a single electron on their valence shell which is why they are highly reactive to
substances like water and acids.

Increase in reactivity

As we move downwards in group one, we notice that the reactivity of the elements increases. An
example would be sodium and cesium. Cesium is more reactive than sodium because it is larger
in size. This is because of the atomic radius (the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the
outer shell). The atomic radius increases downwards in each group of the periodic table.
Sodium’s valence shell is further away from its nucleus causing it to have a larger atomic radius
when compared to lithium. This explains why its reactivity is larger than that of lithium.
Electrons orbit the nucleus because of its positive charge. The larger the valence shell, the
weaker the attraction. This means that the alkali metals with more valence shells are more likely
to lose their electrons. The same applies to the elements of group two, however their reactions
are a little less reactive.

Halogens

Fluorine is one of the halogens (group 17) and is very reactive despite having an almost full
valence shell. These elements want to have a full valence shell but won’t give up their electrons.
Instead, they gain their missing electron/electrons. This makes them highly reactive. On the right
hand of the table, the smaller the element is, the higher the reactivity. The atomic radius is much
smaller meaning that the valence electrons are closer to the nucleus and are attracted more
strongly. This allows the atom to pull an electron more easily which is why they are so reactive.
The atomic radius increases downwards meaning that reactivity increases upwards. This occurs
through groups 15 and 16 as well.

Why is fluorine more reactive than oxygen or nitrogen?

When going more right, an electron is added to the valence shell. This causes the atom to
become smaller. The more electrons on a valence shell will increase the negative charge on that
shell causing a stronger attraction to the positive nucleus. In the periodic table, moving to the
right in a period, the electrons increase and the atomic radius decreases.

● The atomic radius increases downwards in each group and left across each period.
Elements on the left side lose their electrons more easily as the atomic radius increases so
their reactivity increases to the left and downwards.
● Elements on the right-side gain electrons more easily as the atomic radius decreases so
their reactivity increases to the right and upwards.
● Noble gases are basically non-reactive.
Diagram Showing Reactivity Trend In The Periodic Table
 Identification Of An Element’s Position In The Periodic Table Using Its Electron
Configuration

The electronic configuration of an element is a representation of how its electrons are distributed
among the various atomic orbitals.

The periodic table is organised based on the electronic configuration of elements. Each period
(horizontal row) in the periodic table corresponds to an energy level, and each group (vertical
column) represents elements with similar electron configurations.

In simpler terms, it can be thought of as electrons filling up different "shells" around the nucleus
of the nickel atom. Each number in the configuration tells you about the specific arrangement of
electrons in those shells and subshells.

Example:

X: 2, 8, 8, 1

Total: (2+8+8+1) = 19th element, 4th period and 1st group

The element is Potassium (K).

Potassium On The Periodic Table
 Historical Development Of The Periodic Table

Analytical chemistry advanced quickly during the beginning of the 19th century, producing a
wealth of information about the chemical and physical characteristics of elements and
compounds, making classification a necessity. Since it was easier to identify relationships
between compounds than between elements, elements were classified much later than
compounds, often by several years. It is worth noting that scientists were unable to come to a
consensus over the elemental classification for almost fifty years, after the systems of
classification of compounds had become established in general use.

In 1789, French chemist Antoine Lavoisier tried grouping the elements as metals and nonmetals.
Years later, in 1817, German physicist Johann Wolfang Döbereiner observed similarities in
physical and chemical properties of certain elements. He arranged them in groups of three in
increasing order of atomic weight and called them triads, observing that some properties of the
middle element, such as atomic weight and density, approximated the average value of these
properties in the other two in each triad. For example, he showed that the combining weight,
meaning atomic weight, of strontium lies midway between those of calcium and barium, and
some years later he revealed the existence of other such “triads.”

Classification of the elements

In 1864, British chemist J.A.R. Newlands was the first to put forth the idea of classifying the
elements in the order of increasing atomic weights, the elements being assigned ordinal numbers
from unity upward and divided into seven groups having properties closely related to the first
seven of the elements then known: hydrogen, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen. This relationship was termed the law of octaves, by analogy with the seven intervals of
the musical scale.
The first periodic table
In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created the framework that became the modern
periodic table, leaving gaps for elements that were yet to be discovered. While arranging the
elements according to their atomic weight, if he found that they did not fit into the group he
would rearrange them. Mendeleev predicted the properties of some undiscovered elements and
gave them names such as "eka-aluminium" for an element with properties similar to aluminium.
Later eka-aluminium was discovered as gallium. Some discrepancies remained; the position of
certain elements, such as iodine and tellurium, could not be explained.

In an 1871 paper Mendeleev presented a revision of the 17-group table, the principal
improvement being the correct repositioning of 17 elements. He, as well as Lothar Meyer, also
proposed a table with eight columns obtained by splitting each of the long periods into a period
of seven, an eighth group containing the three central elements (such as iron, cobalt, nickel;
Mendeleyev also included copper, instead of placing it in Group I), and a second period of seven.
The first and second periods of seven were later distinguished by use of the letters “a” and “b”
attached to the group symbols, which were the Roman numerals.

The discovery of noble gases by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894 led to the
proposal of adding a new "zero" group to the periodic table. The "short-period" form of the
periodic table, with Groups 0, I, II,…VIII, became popular until about 1930. J. Thomsen in 1895
devised a new table based on an earlier model of T. Bayley, which included periods of increasing
length between noble gases. The table contained periods of 2 elements, 8 elements, 18 elements,
one of 32 elements, and an incomplete period. However, the main disadvantage was the large
space required by the 32-element period and the difficulty of tracing a sequence of closely
similar elements. A compromise was made by compressing the period of 32 elements into 18
spaces by listing the 14 lanthanoids and 14 actinoids in a special double row below the other
periods.
Arrangement of the periodic table
Despite corrections made by the redetermination of atomic weights, some elements in the
Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer periodic tables of 1871 were still required to be placed in positions
somewhat out of the order of atomic weights. For example, in the pairs argon and potassium,
cobalt and nickel, and tellurium and iodine, the first element had the greater atomic weight but
the earlier position in the periodic system. The solution to this difficulty was found when the
structure of the atom was better understood.

In 1910, Sir Ernest Rutherford's experiments led to the determination of the nuclear electrical
charge, which was found to be roughly one-half the atomic weight. In 1911, A. van den Broek
suggested that the atomic number could be identified with the ordinal number of the element in
the periodic system. This suggestion was confirmed in 1913 by H.G.J. Moseley's measurements
of the wavelengths of characteristic X-ray spectral lines of many elements, showing that
wavelengths depended in a regular way on the atomic numbers.

The exact atomic weight of an element is of small significance for its position in the periodic
system, as all isotopes of an element occupy the same place in the periodic system despite their
differences in atomic weight.

Periods

The periodic table of the elements contains all of the chemical elements that have been
discovered or made; they are arranged, in the order of their atomic numbers, in seven horizontal
periods, with the lanthanides (lanthanum, 57, to lutetium, 71) and the actinides (actinium, 89, to
lawrencium, 103).

Groups

Group, in chemistry, a column in the periodic table of the chemical elements. In a group, the
chemical elements have atoms with identical valence electron counts and identical valence
vacancy counts. This similarity in both the composition and structure of their atomic valence
shells implies a corresponding similarity in both their chemical and physical properties. Groups
are numbered from 1 to 18.
Johann Wolfang Döbereiner Dmitri Mendeleev

Henry Moseley
The Electronic Configuration And Atomic Structure Of The First Two Elements On
The Periodic Table

The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Therefore, a hydrogen atom contains 1 electron, which will
be placed in the first shell/orbit. The electron configuration of hydrogen is:
1:1
Or
1s1

H: 1s1
Helium atoms have 2 electrons which will be placed on the first shell/orbit. The electron
configuration of helium is:
1:2
Or
1s2

He: 1s2
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