00Name:___________

GCSE to A-level Transition Booklet

You need to read this booklet and do all the questions BEFORE September.
You will go through the answers of this booklet in your first week and you will have an assessment to
check your understanding.

Contents:
1. The periodic table and atomic structure
2. Bonding
3. Quantitative chemistry
4. The Maths of Chemistry
5. Organic chemistry
 Section 1: Using the Periodic Table
Introduction
A section of the periodic table showing metals and non-metals

● The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (the number of protons). This
determines the characteristic of the element.
● The horizontal rows are called periods. The vertical columns are called groups

● You may see all the groups numbered 1to 8 or (including the transition metals), from 1 to 18

● Elements in the same group in the periodic table have similar chemical properties. This is because
their atoms have the same number of electrons in the highest occupied energy level.
Groups
A vertical column of elements in the periodic table is a group. The elements in a group have similar
chemical properties to each other. For example, group 1 contains sodium and other very reactive metals,
while group 7 contains chlorine and other very reactive non-metals. Group 0 Elements in the same group
have similar chemical properties. The group number is the same as the number of electrons in the outer
shell of all the elements in the group.

Examples:
● All the Group 1 elements: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr, have one electron in the outer shell.

● The Group 7 or 17 elements: F, Cl, Br, I and As have seven electrons in the outer shell.

● Group 0 or 18 elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn have full outer shells. (Group 0 is sometimes
called Group 8.)

Periods
Elements in the same horizontal row are said to be in the same period. The periods are numbered from top
to bottom. The period number is the same as the number of electron shells that are occupied. The number
of protons in the atom of an element determines its place in the periodic table. The number of electrons in
an atom is the same as the number of protons. These electrons are arranged in shells or 'energy levels'
around the nucleus. The arrangement of electrons determines the chemical properties of an element.

Electron arrangement of the first 20 elements

Electrons are arranged in shells at different distances around the nucleus. As we move across each row of
the periodic table the proton number increases by one for each element. This means the number of
electrons also increases by one for each element. Starting from the simplest element, hydrogen, and
moving through the elements in order we can see how the electrons fill the shells. The innermost shell (or
lowest energy level) of electrons is filled first. This shell can contain a maximum of two electrons. Next, the
second shell fills with electrons. This can hold a maximum of eight electrons. When this is filled, electrons
go into the third shell, which also holds a maximum of eight electrons. Then the fourth shell begins to fill.

Periodic table showing electron configurations

● Moving across each period, you can see that the number of shells is the same as the period number.

● As you go across each period from left to right the outer shell gradually becomes filled with
electrons. The outer shell contains just one electron on the left hand side of the table, but is filled
by the time you get to the right hand side.
● Moving down each group, you can see that the number of electrons in the outermost shell is the
same as the group number.
● Each element in a group therefore has the same number of electrons in its outer shell.

Group number and ions

Ions are electrically charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. This loss or gain leaves a
complete highest energy level, so the electronic structure of an ion is the same as that of a noble gas - such
as a helium, neon or argon. Metal atoms and non-metal atoms go in opposite directions when they ionise:

Metal atoms lose the electron, or electrons, in their highest energy level and become positively charged
ions. Non-metal atoms gain an electron, or electrons, from another atom to become negatively charged
ions

Negatively charged oxide and chloride ions Positively charged sodium and aluminium ions
How many charges?
There is a quick way to work out what the charge on an ion should be:
● The number of charges on an ion formed by a metal is equal to the group number of the metal

● The number of charges on an ion formed by a non-metal is equal to the group number minus eight
 ● Hydrogen forms H+ ions

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 0

Example Na Mg Al C N O Cl He
element

Charge 1+ 2+ 3+ Note 1 3- 2- 1- Note 2

Symbol of ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ Note 1 N3- O2- Cl- Note 2
Note 1: carbon and silicon in Group 4 usually form covalent bonds by sharing electrons.
Note 2: the elements in Group 0 do not react with other elements to form ions.

Isotopes:
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. For various
elements there are different naturally occurring isotopes e.g. chlorine on the earth is 75% Cl 35 and 25% Cl37.
This is why the mass number that you see on the periodic table is 35.5. It is a weighted average of the
natural abundance of each isotope.
The mass number has no effect on the chemistry of the atoms, only on the mass.

Section 2: Bonding
Metallic Bonding
Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the outer shells of the
metal atoms are free to move. The metallic bond is the force of attraction
between these free electrons and metal ions. Metallic bonds are strong, so
metals can maintain a regular structure and usually have high melting and
boiling points.
Atomic structure of a metal

Covalent Bonding
Covalent compounds are formed between non-metal atoms, which combine together by sharing a pair of
electrons (one from each atom). A covalent bond is the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of
electrons and each atom’s nucleus. The shared pair of electrons holds the two atoms together. It's called
a covalent bond. The group of atoms bonded together in this way is called a molecule. Covalent
compounds have no free electrons and no ions so they don't conduct
electricity (apart from graphite).

Giant covalent compounds have lots of strong covalent bonds that need to be
broken in order to melt or boil the substance. A high amount of energy is
required to do this which is why the melting points of giant covalent
substances like diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide are so high.

Simple covalent compounds have strong covalent bonds WITHIN the molecule
but weak intermolecular forces between them. These forces only require little
energy to overcome resulting in low melting and boiling points.
Dot and cross models
Dot and cross models show how a pair of electrons forms a covalent bond. Notice that in the diagrams in
the table below only the electrons in the outer shell of each atom are shown.

CH4 H2 O CO2

Ionic Bonding
An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonding occurs
between positive and negative ions, which attract each other and bind together to form ionic compounds.
For example, sodium chloride consists of Na+ ions and Cl- ions bound together. Each ion is surrounded by
oppositely charged ions held in place by electrostatic attraction and forming an ionic crystal lattice. The
ions in a crystal lattice are very strongly bonded - a high temperature is required to melt the crystal. There
are several ways in which atoms chemically combine together to make compounds. One of these ways is
called ionic bonding. Atoms turn into ions when they lose or gain electrons.

Metal ions
In some circumstances metal atoms may lose electrons. The atom then has more protons than electrons
and so it will be positively charged, a positive ion. Example: A magnesium atom may lose two electrons and
become a Mg2+ ion.
Non-metal ions
Non-metal atoms may gain electrons and become negatively charged. Example: An oxygen atom may gain
two electrons and become an O2- ion.
Positive and negative ions attract one another and bind together forming a new substance. This is
called ionic bonding.
Example: Sodium chloride consists of Na+ ions and Cl- ions bound together.
Magnesium oxide consists of Mg2+ ions and O2- ions bound together.
Ionic compounds like magnesium oxide and sodium chloride have high melting points and do not conduct
electricity when solid. They do conduct electricity when molten. Sodium chloride is soluble in water and
the solution conducts electricity.

Dot and cross models

The formation of ionic compounds is often shown with dot
and cross models. For example, a sodium atom loses one
electron from its outer shell to become a positively charged
sodium ion.
On the other hand an oxygen atom gains two electrons in
its outer shell to become a negatively charged oxygen ion:
Notice how atoms gain or lose just the right number of
electrons to produce an ion with a complete outer shell of
electrons. This is sometimes called a stable octet. The
 positive and negative ions attract each other and form an ionic bond. We can draw this using dots for one
atom and crosses for the other atom.

Forming ions
Ions are electrically charged particles formed when atoms lose or gain electrons. They do this to become
more stable - the loss or gain leaves a full outer shell, so the electronic structure of an ion is the same as
that of a noble gas (such as helium, neon or argon). Metal atoms and non-metal atoms do different things
when they ionise (become ions).
Charges on ions:
● the number of charges on an ion formed by a metal is equal to the group number of the metal
● the number of charges on an ion formed by a non-metal is equal to the group number minus eight
● Exception: hydrogen forms H+ ions
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 0

Example element Na Mg Al C N O Cl He

Charge + 2+ 3+ * 3- 2- - **

Symbol of ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ * N3- O2- Cl- **

* Carbon and silicon in Group 4 usually form covalent bonds by sharing electrons.
** The elements in Group 0 do not react with other elements to form ions.
Lithium, Li
Lithium is in Group 1. It has one electron in its outer shell. Calcium, Ca
When this electron is lost, a lithium ion, Li+, is formed. Calcium is also in Group 2. It has two electrons in its
outer shell. When these electrons are lost, a
Sodium, Na calcium ion, Ca2+, is formed.
Sodium is also A calcium ion has the same electronic structure as
in Group 1. It an argon atom (Ar).
has one
electron in its
outer shell.
When this
electron is lost, a sodium ion, Na+, is formed.

Fluorine, F
Neon, Ne
Fluorine is in Group 7. It has seven electrons in its
A neon atom (Ne) has the same electronic structure as a
outer shell. It gains an electron from another atom
sodium ion. However, a neon atom is not a sodium ion.
in reactions, forming a fluoride ion, F-.
The nucleus of a sodium ion is the nucleus of a
Note that the atom is called fluorine, but the ion is
sodium atom and has 11 protons - but the nucleus of
called fluoride.
a neon atom has only 10.

Magnesium, Mg
Magnesium is in Group 2. It has two electrons in its outer
shell. When these electrons are lost, a magnesium ion, Mg 2+,
is formed.
A magnesium ion has
the same electronic
structure as a neon A fluoride ion has the same electronic structure as a
atom (Ne). neon atom (Ne). However, a fluoride ion is not a
 neon atom. The nucleus of a fluoride ion is the nucleus of
a fluorine atom and has 9 protons – but the nucleus of a
neon atom has 10.
Oxygen, O
Oxygen is in Group 6. It has six electrons in its outer shell.
It gains two electrons from one or two other atoms in
reactions, forming an oxide ion, O2-.

Ionic compound formulae

Knowing the charges on the ions allows you to work out the formula of an ionic compound.
For example, any compound of an element in Group 2 with an element in Group 7 will need two of the
Group 7 ions (X-) to balance the two positive charges on the Group 2 ion (M2+). The formula will therefore
be MX2.

Molecular Ions and formulae

It is not only atoms that become ions, molecules can become ions too! Some common examples of
molecular ions and their charges are written below. Learn these off
by heart!
Working out the formula for compounds involving these molecular ions
uses the same principle described above.
You need enough of each species (atomic ion or molecular ion) to
balance the charges. For example a Group 2 ion (M 2+) will need two
nitrate ions (NO3-) to balance the two positive charges on M 2+ . The
formula will be M(NO3-)2.
We must use brackets to represent more than one molecular ion in an
onic compound. This is because the charge is spread over the whole molecule, and the covalent bonds in the molecule do not
hange when it is electrostatically attracted to another ions.

Worked example:
● Write the formula for potassium chloride.
Answer:
Potassium is a group 1 metal, so will lose one electron, producing K +
Chlorine is in group 7, will gain one electron produce Cl -
Formula: KCl
● Write the formula for ammonium sulphate.
Answer:
The ammonium ion has a 1+ charge – NH 4+
The sulphate ion has a 2- charge - SO42-
Two ammoniums are needed to balance the negative charge on the sulphate ion.
Formula: (NH4)2(SO4)

Section 3: Quantitative Chemistry

Balancing equations:
 Relative Formula/molecular mass:
Atomic Proton Number

O
-The number of protons
-the SMALLER number
8

Relative Atomic Mass Number 16

-The number of protons and neutrons
-The BIGGER number
The relative formula mass (Mr) is the sum of mass numbers for all the atoms in a formula.

Example 4NaOH + 2H2SO4 -> 2NaSO4 + 4H2O What’s the Mr of sulphuric acid?
1. Find the atomic masses of the atoms in the formula
Atomic mass of Hydrogen: 1.008g/mol Atomic mass of Sulphur: 32.066g/mol
Atomic mass of Oxygen: 15.999g/mol
Remember when working
out Mr we ignore the molar
2. Add up the atomic masses together ratio number in front
(1.008x2) + 32.066 + (15.999 x4) = 98.078 g/mol

The mole
Ways to calculate the number of moles in something:
1. Using Avogadro’s constant and the number of particles
2. Mass and molecular mass
3. Concentration and volume
4. Volume and 24000cm3

Moles= number of particles / 6.02 x1023

 Steps of a mole calculation:
1. Convert all known values to moles (through one of the above equations)
2. Look at the molar ratio to work out the amount of moles for your unknown chemical
(REMEMBER molar ratios only work with moles not grams!)
3. Convert moles to mass/concentration if needed

Example

5cm3 of 0.5mol/dm3 NaOH reacted completely. How many grams of NaCl were made?
6NaOH + 3Cl2 → NaClO3 + 5NaCl + 3H2O
1. Convert all known values to moles (you might need to use any of the above equations!)
Rearrange concentration equation to give: Moles = 0.5mol/dm3 x 5cm3
1000

= 0.0025 moles of NaOH

2. Look at the molar ratio to work out the amount of moles for your unknown chemical

Ratio: 6NaOH + 3Cl2 → NaClO3 + 5NaCl + 3H2O

Remember to work out moles from ratio:
Divide the known moles by the ratio number of the
Ratio: 6 : 5 chemical you know, then multiply by the ratio
number of the chemical you want to work out.
0.0025 x 5 = 0.00208.. moles of NaCl
6
3. Convert moles to mass/concentration if needed
Rearrange molar equation to give: Mass = 0.00208mol x (23+35.5)g/mol
= 0.123g

Steps to work out molar ratio

1. Work out the word equation
2. Find out the moles of all the chemicals in the reaction
3. Simplify the moles to a simple ratio (by dividing by each mole value by the
smallest mole value)
Example

1.133 g of silver nitrate was heated in an open tube. The silver residue weighed 0.720g. During the reaction
0.307 g of nitrogen dioxide was also produced. The rest of the mass loss was due to oxygen. Use the data to
write the equation for the reaction.

1. Work out the word equation

Silver Nitrate -> Silver + Nitrogen Dioxide + Oxygen

2. Find out the moles of all the chemicals in the reaction out the word equation
a) Here we also have to work out the mass of Oxygen by using the conservation of mass law: 1.133g-
(0.720g+0.307g) = 0.106g
b) Then divide each mass by its Mr to find the moles of each chemical.
 3. Simplify the moles to a simple ratio (by dividing by each mole value by the smallest
mole value)
0.0067 = 2 0.0067 = 2 0.0067 = 2 0.0033 = 1
0.0033 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033

Titrations
In a titration we are looking at 4 values. 2 in the burette and 2 in the conical flask.

Volume of solution used up in burette – the titre (dm 3)

Concentration of solution in
3
Volume of solution in conical flask (dm ) burette (mol/dm3)

Concentration of solution in conical flask (mol/dm3)

We will know 3 of these values beforehand and one will be unknown.

Steps of a titration calculation:

1. Convert the chemical which has 2 known values (both concentration and
volume) to moles
2. Look at the molar ratio to work out the amount of moles for your
unknown chemical
3. Convert moles to volume/concentration
Example

0.025dm3 of 0.5mol/dm3 NaOH was placed in a conical flask. A 0.9mol/dm3 solution of HCl was placed in
the burette and a titration was carried out. What was the volume of HCl titrated?
NaOH + HCl -> NaCl + H2O
 1. Convert the chemical which has 2 known values (both concentration and volume) to
moles (NaOH in this question)
Rearrange concentration equation to give: Moles = 0.5mol/dm3 x 0.025dm3
= 0.0125 moles of NaOH

2. Look at the molar ratio to work out the amount of moles for your unknown chemical

Ratio: NaOH + HCl -> NaCl + H2O

Ratio: 1 : 1
0.0125 moles of NaOH = 0.0125 moles of HCl

3. Convert moles to volume/concentration (we’re converting to volume for this question)

Rearrange molar equation to give: Volume = 0.0125mol
0.9mol/dm3
= 0.139dm3

Atom Economy
Atom economy measures the atoms wasted when making a chemical. We count the atomic masses of all the atoms
in the products. Less by-products means better atom economy.

Atom economy = Mr of desired products x100

Mr of all products
It will tell you which is the
CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2 desired product in the
question
Example

C + 2H2O -> CO2 + 2H2

What is the atom economy in the above equation when H2 is the desired product.

1. Calculate the Mr of the different products

Mr of H2 = 2x 1.0 = 2.0 Mr of CO2 = 12 + (16 x 2) = 44.0

2. Multiply each Mr by its molar ratio

H2: 2 x 2.0 = 4.0 CO2: 1 x 44.0 = 44.0

3. Calculate the atom economy using the equation

Atom economy = Mr of 2H2 x100 Atom economy = 4.0 x100 = 8.3% Mr of

2H2 + CO2 4.0+44.0

Percentage yield
Percentage yield measures how much of the product was made out of the maximum we could have got.

The actual mass is normally lower than the predicted mass because:
 some of the product is lost when transferring chemicals,

not all the reactant measured out might have reacted,

the original measured out reactant might have had impurities in it.

Steps to work out percentage yield

1. Calculate the predicted mass (by following the steps from the molar calculation
sheet)
2. % Yield = actual mass x100
predicted mass

Example

What is the % yield of NH3 if 40.5 g NH3 is produced from 20.0 mol H2 and excess N2?

N2 + 3H2 -> 2NH3

1. Calculate the predicted mass

a) Calculate the moles of the known chemical
(the moles of H2 is already given in this question though!)
20.0mol of H2
b) Look at molar ratio to work out amount of moles for your unknown amount of
product
Ratio: N2 + 3H2 -> 2NH3

Ratio: 3 : 2
20.0mol x 2 = 13.33 moles of NH3
3
c) Calculate the mass of the product
13.33mol x 17g/mol = 226.7g

Mr of NH3

2. Calculate percentage yield

% yield = 40.5g x100 = 17.9%
226.7

Section 4: The Maths of Chemistry

There are several areas in which students often struggle at the beginning of the course:
● Use of symbols; ● Use of formulae;
● Use of SI units; ● Presentation of data;
● Use of a calculator; ● Interpretation of graphical data.

These notes and activities are designed to help you to become more confident with the areas above –
which should help to make your studies more productive and enjoyable.

Symbols
We use symbols in equations to show the relationship between certain variables. One you may have come
across at GCSE is the relationship between the number of moles and mass:

N = M/Mr
In Chemistry problems we are given certain quantities and use them to find an unknown quantity with an
equation. In every problem you will have only one unknown. At AS level you will never be expected to
tackle a problem with two or more unknowns using a single equation. That said you may need to look up
some quantities from the data sheet or use substitution methods as appropriate.

The symbols used in exams and most textbooks are those agreed by the Association of Science Education.
Some symbols are easy; M stands for mass. Some are not so easy – Mr stands for relative molecular mass,
Ar stands for relative atomic mass and n is the number of moles.

What do these symbols stand for?

C
V
P
T
N

Units
Chemistry formulae use SI (Système International) units based on a set of base units:
● Volume of a liquid (V) – cubic decimetres (dm3);

● Volume of a gas (V) – cubic decimetres (dm3);

● Amount of substance (n) – mole (mol);

● Concentration (C) – moles per cubic decimetre (moldm-3)

● Mass (m) – grams (g);

● Relative molecular mass (Mr) – grams per mole (gmol-1)

● Time (t) – second (s);

● Temperature (T) – Kelvin (K);

● Energy change (Q) – Joules (J)

● Specific heat capacity (C) – Joules per kilogram per kelvin (Jkg-1K-1)
Many Chemistry formulae will give you the right answer ONLY if you put the quantities in SI units. This
means that you may have to convert the units. You will often find units that are prefixed, for example
kilogram. The table below shows you the most common prefixes and what they mean:

Prefix Symbol Meaning Example

Pico p × 10-12 1 pm
Nano n × 10-9 1 nm
Micro µ × 10-6 1 µm
Milli m × 10-3 1 mm
Centi c × 10-2 1 cm
Kilo k × 103 1 km

When converting, it is perfectly acceptable to write the number and the conversion factor. For example:

250 nm = 250 × 10-9 m = 2.5 × 10-7 m

Kelvin is unit that is used to measure temperature. Unlike oC, the zero point for kelvin is actually -273oC (or
0 Kelvin). This may seem like a random number, but actually, it is chosen because -273 oC is the coldest
temperature possible in the universe known as absolute zero.

To convert from oC to K, we simply add 273 to the number you have. For example, if the temperature of a
room is 22oC, then the temperature in kelvin will be

22 oC + 273 = 295K

When you write out your answer, you must always put the correct unit at the end. The number 2500 on
its own is meaningless; 2500g gives it a meaning.

Convert the following quantities to SI units:

500 kg
30 minutes
35 µm
220oC

Standard Form
Standard form consists of a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10. For big numbers and
very small numbers standard form is very useful.

8. Comment on what happens if you try to put the following numbers into your
calculator as they are. What does your calculator do when you enter (c) and (d)?
(a) 3200
(b) 5 600 000
(c) 2 800 000 000 000
(d) 0.000000000000341

You should have found that very small numbers entered into a calculator are read as 0, unless they are
entered as standard form. The following number is shown in standard form:

3.28 × 105
= 3.28 × 100 000 = 328 000
Look at this number:
4 505 000 000 000 000 000
Start counting from here to get the power of 10.

We find that there are 18 digits after the first digit, so we can write the number in standard form as:
4.505 × 1018
For fractions we count how far back the first digit is from the decimal point:

0.00000342
In this case it is six places from the decimal point, so it is: 3.42 × 10-6

A negative power of ten (negative index) means that the number is a fraction, i.e. between 0 and 1.
Convert these numbers to standard form:
86
381
45300
1 500 000 000
0.03
0.00045
0.0000000782
There is no hard and fast rule as to when to use standard form in an answer. Basically if your calculator
presents an answer in standard form, then use it. I would generally use standard form for:
● numbers greater than 100 000

● numbers less than 0.001

When doing a conversion from one unit to another, for example from millimetres to metres, it is perfectly
acceptable to write:
15 mm = 15 × 10-3 m
Too Many Significant Figures
Consider this calculation:
n = 2.67
112.4

Your calculator will give the answer as n = 0.02375445

There is no reason at all in A-level Chemistry to write any answer to any more than 3 significant figures.
Three significant figures is claiming accuracy to about one part in 1000. Blindly writing your calculator
answer is claiming that you can be accurate to one part in 100 million, which is absurd because no
measuring instruments (rulers, thermometers etc) can measure to that level of accuracy.
The examination mark schemes give answers that are no more than 2 or 3 significant figures. So our
answer becomes:
r = 9.62 (3 s.f.)
or r = 9.6 (2 s.f.)

Do any rounding up or down at the end of a calculation. If you do any rounding in the middle, you could
end up with rounding errors which could lose marks.

If you round your answers during the calculation, you might get a wildly different answer to the actual
answer.
For example:
Calculating the mass of HCl dissolved in 268cm3 of 0.126moldm-3 solution.

N = 0.126 x 1000
268
The actual answer is 17.2g (3sf), which is over
= 0.4701492537313433mol a gram away from the answer we got from
rounding.
M = n x Mr

0.5 x 36.5
= 18.3g (3sf)
Use your calculator to do the following calculations. Write your answers to no more
than three significant figures.
ANSWER
-3 23
(a) 3.4 × 10 × 6.0 × 10
235
(b) 27.32 – 24.82
√38
(c) 1.45093

(d) sin 56.4

(e) cos-1 0.4231

(f) tan-1 2.143

(g) sin-1 1.00052

(h) 20-2 x 40 – 10

(i) 45 sin 10

Some other tips on use of calculators:

● On most calculators the number is keyed in after the function (sin, cos, log) but check this on your
own calculator
● Take one step at a time and write intermediate results. Break up a calculation into sections.

● It is easy to make a mistake such as pressing the × key rather than the ÷ key. It is a good idea to do
the calculation again as a check.
● Use a “common sense” approach to your answers – does the answer you get seem reasonable? If
not check it again. For example, if you work out a concentration as 1000000000moldm -3, it’s
probably wrong!

Rearranging Equations
The rearrangement of formulae is a skill that is essential for successful study of Chemistry. The wrong
rearrangement of a formula will lead to an error in the exam and you will lose some or all the marks
available in that part of the question. (However, if you use your incorrect answer correctly in subsequent
parts, your error will be carried forward and you will gain the credit.)

Some students find rearrangement very difficult and it hampers their progress and enjoyment of the
subject. They try to get round it by learning all the variants of a formula, which is usually a great waste of
time and effort.

It is far better to get into the habit of rearranging formulae from the start. The best thing to do is to
practise.

Key Points:
● Whatever you do on one side of an equation you have to do on the other side. It applies whether
you are working with numbers, symbols, or both
● Don’t try to do too many stages at once – one at a time is best

Rearranging Formulae
Simple formulae are those that consist of three quantities, taking the form A = BC. A typical example is
N=M/Mr.

Here we want to work out a mass, so that M is on its own.

So we multiply both sides by Mr which gives us:

N x Mr = M/Mr x Mr
The Mrs on the RHS cancel out because Mr/Mr = 1. So we are left with:

N x Mr = M
It does not matter which way the equation ends up, as long as it is rearranged properly.

Rearrange these equations:

Equation Subject Answer

N=M/Mr Mr

pV = nRT T
N = CxV
1000 C

Q = MCΔT ΔT

Understanding the role of units in equations

Something that is often ignored when trying to work out how to rearrange equations and whether you
have a correct answer is to look at the units. For example:

N=Cx V
1000

C = concentration in moldm-3
V = volume in cm3
 N = amount of substance in mol

So why do we divide by 1000? Well, the volume is in cm3 so we have to convert it into dm3 so that it is the
same unit as with concentration.

Now that the We can then re-write this equation with just the units and we can see that they all fit
together:
Mol = mol dm-3 x dm3

dm-3 x dm3 = 1, which leaves us with just mol, as we would expect.

Section 5: Organic Chemistry

Alkanes: hydrocarbons (carbon always makes 4 bonds)

Alkenes

Alcohols

Carboxylic acids

Esters
Esters are formed from the reaction of alcohols and carboxylic acids

Combustion:
Combustion means reacting a fuel with oxygen. The simplest fuel to combust would be hydrogen. All other
hydrocarbons would always form water and carbon dioxide. When you balance combustion reactions you
are allowed to use half oxygen molecules e.g. C2H6 + 3.5O2  2CO2 + 3H2O
 Questions to answer:
You will go through these on your first week back:
ection 1:
a) Draw the electronic structure of an oxygen atom
b) Draw the electronic structure of an oxide ion
c) Write the electronic structure of boron
d) Write the electronic structure of a boron ion
e) Now write the formula of the following compounds:
● Boron oxide ● Calcium Nitrate

● Beryllium Fluoride ● Potassium Sulphate

● Magnesium Bromide ● Barium Manganate

● Caesium Oxide
ection 2:
1) Using a correctly labelled diagram, describe how one calcium atom and one chlorine atom can bond
together to form a compound.

Include as much detail as you can about what happens to each atom as it bonds with the other to form the
compound, the name of the compound and its chemical formula.

2) Draw the dot-cross diagram for the following:

a) ammonia (NH3) e) Nitrogen (N2)
b) ethane (C2H6) f) NaCl
c) ethane (C2H4) g) Al2O3
d) oxygen (O2) h) MgO

3) Balance these equations

1. …. Mg + …. Cl2 → ….MgCl2
2. …. Na + …. Cl2 → …. NaCl
3. ….. KOH + ….. H3PO4 → ….. K3PO4 + ….. H2O
4. ….. FeBr3 + ….. H2SO4 → ….. Fe2(SO4)3 + ….. HBr
5. ….. Pb(NO3)2 + ….. FeCl3 → ….. Fe(NO3)3 + ….. PbCl2
6. …. B2Br6 + …. HNO3 → …. B(NO3)3 + …. HBr
7. …. Fe + …. HC2H3O2 → …. Fe(C2H3O2)3 + …. H2
8. ….NH4OH + …. KAl(SO4)2·12H2O → …. Al(OH)3 + …. (NH4)2SO4 + …. KOH + …. H2O

ection 3:
1) Calculate the relative formula mass for the following:
a) 2(NH4)2SO4 d) 6Pb(CH3COO)2
b) 3Pb(NO3)2 e) Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
c) Al2(SO4)3
 2) Calculate the number of moles in the following questions. Show your working clearly and use the right
equation.
a) What is the concentration of a 25cm3 solution that has 0.004 moles of 5CuSO4? Give your answer in
mol/dm3
b) How many moles are there in 42.cm3 of gaseous CO2?
c) What volume is needed to make a 0.3mol/dm3 sugar solution with 0.9g of 2C12H22O11 (the formula for
sugar)?
d) What volume of Cl2 gas is needed to have 20.9 moles of Cl2. Give your answer in dm3 and cm3.

3) Follow these calculations and structure your working clearly. You will need to write the balanced
equations for each of these reactions.
a) Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide produced from the combustion of 3g of magnesium with
oxygen
b) Calculate the volume of 1mol.dm-3 hydrochloric acid needed to neutralise 3g of sodium hydroxide
c) Calculate the percentage yield of copper chloride (2g) formed from copper(4g) and excess acid
d) Calculate the number of chloride ions in 2g of magnesium chloride
e) Calculate the mass of iron needed to make 4Kg of iron sulphate using excess acid
f) What mass of hydrogen is formed when zinc reacts with nitric acid

Section 4:
Re-write the equations below to show their units and explain why we divide by different numbers etc.
a) N = m/Mr
b) N = V (in dm3)/24
c) N = V (in cm3)/24000
d) Q = MCΔT

Write these numbers to 2 significant figures:

a) 0.456
b) 2.3536
c) 0.88888888
d) 345.76
e) 238760
f) 0.004555

Section 5:
Write the balanced equation for the complete combustion of the following. Include a structural diagram
for each of the compounds involved.
a) Propane
b) Propanol
c) Ethanoic acid
d) Butanoic acid
e) Propene

Try writing the balanced equation for the reaction of ethanol and propanoic acid (hint: water is also
formed in this reaction).