GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2

Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination

Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

A. Kinetic Molecular Model of Solids and Liquids

- utilizes the Kinetic Molecular Theory in order to describe the properties of solids and liquid
- based on the a) intermolecular forces of attraction and b) kinetic energy of individual particles

Premises:

1. All matter is composed of small particles.

2. The particles are in constant random motion.
3. The speed of the motion of the particles is directly proportional to temperature.
4. There are spaced between the particles.
5. There are forces of attraction and repulsion between the particles.

Criteria SOLID LIQUID

Particles Composed of small particles Composed of small particles
Spaces between particles Very little spaces Bigger spaces than in solids; no
rigid position and particles are free
to slide over one another

Energy and movement Low energy; particles only vibrate More energy than in solids; particles
around a fixed point due to the small can move more freely than solids
spaces between particles due to bigger spaces between
particles

When temperature is increased, When temperature is increased,

particles vibrate faster
Attractive forces Very strong forces enough to keep
solids rigid
Fxn: to pull particles
together
Changes in phase Solids become liquids or gases if the
temperature is increased
particles move faster
Weaker forces than in solids; this
behavior make liquids flow and
assume the shape of the container
A liquid becomes a gas if the
temperature is increased; it
becomes a solid if the temperature
is decreased
 GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

Recall: How do we determine the polarity of a molecule? Ihh alam na alam niyo na ito.

Molecule 1. Is the molecule a 2. Draw the Lewis 3. Is the molecule 4. If symmetric, are all Polarity
hydrocarbon structure. symmetric (symmetric= outside atoms
(with C and H if the electrons of the similar?
atoms only)? a. Determine valence e-s central atom are
of each element. bonded to other atoms; • YES – NON POLAR
• YES – NON POLAR b. Identify the central no lone pairs)? • NO – POLAR
• NO – Lewis atom. (The lowest
structure electronegativity • YES – Examine outside
among the atoms, atoms.
which is increasing • NO – POLAR
from bottom to top and
left to right).

PCl3 NO P= 5 v.e. Based from the Lewis structure, POLAR

Cl= 7 v.e. x 3 there is a lone pair in the central
TVE= 26 atom P.

NO, IT IS NOT SYMMETRIC.

(Thus, PCl3 is a polar molecule).

CCl4 NO C= 4 v.e. Based from the Lewis structure, 4 Cl atoms are bonded to C. NON POLAR
Cl= 7 v.e. x 4 there is no lone pair in the central
TVE= 32 atom C. YES, ALL OUTSIDE ATOMS
BONDED TO THE CENTRAL
YES, IT IS SYMMETRIC. ATOM C ARE SIMILAR.

(Thus, we should examine the

outside atoms).
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

B. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Intramolecular
- Forces of attraction between atoms of a molecule
- For example, the H-Cl bonds of HCl
- Metallic bonding, ionic binding, covalent bonding are
some types of intramolecular forces of attraction.
Intermolecular
- Forces of attraction between 2 or more molecules
- For example, the bond between 2 or more HCl molecules
- London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interaction,
hydrogen bonding and ion-dipole interaction are the types
of intermolecular forces of attraction.

• London Dispersion forces

- weakest among the 4 IMFA
- observed in both polar and nonpolar molecules
- exist due to the movement of the particles of a matter, especially electrons

Nonpolar 1 Nonpolar 2 Suppose we have 2 nonpolar molecules without attraction.

δ+ δ- The electrons of nonpolar 1 moved to the right side of the molecule. Since
++++ ----- Nonpolar 2 all electrons are concentrated on this side, this becomes the partial
++++ ----- negative/ δ- end. The other side is the partial positive/ δ+ end of the
molecule.

δ+ δ- δ+ ++++ ----- δ-
++++ ----- Because of these charges, nonpolar 1 attracts nonpolar 2 and induces the
++++ ----- ++++ ----- partial charges in nonpolar 2.

++++ ----- ++++ ----- Remember that “like charges repel, opposite charges attract”. The
attraction between the δ- of nonpolar 1 and δ+ and nonpolar 2 is the
++++ ----- ++++ -----
London dispersion force.

• Dipole-dipole Inter
London dispersion force
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

• Dipole-dipole Interaction
- exist between polar molecules
- polar: molecules with permanent dipole moment because of the difference in electronegativity of the component atoms
[Saan nahahanap yung electronegativity? Check the periodic table of elements. Electronegativity increases from bottom to top, left to right. The
more electronegative, siya yung partial negative end of the molecule.]

For example, we have HCl. Between H and Cl, the more electronegative element is Cl since it is located at
group 7 while H is located at group 1. Dahil mas electronegative si Cl, siya ang partial negative end at si
H ang partial positive. The attraction between Cl of one HCl molecule and H of another HCl molecule is
the dipole-dipole interaction.

• Hydrogen Bonding
- special type of dipole-dipole interaction that exists only in molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded to a small, highly electronegative atoms
such as F, O, and N
- a strong intermolecular force of attraction because of the huge electronegativity difference between H and F, O, and N

For example, we have water (H2O). Between H and O, which is the more electronegative atom? It is O since
it is located at group 6 while H is located at group 1. The attraction between the H of one water molecule
and O of another water molecule is the hydrogen bonding.

• Ion-dipole Forces
- this acts between an ion (either positive and negative) and a polar molecule
- usually observed in solutions
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

C. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction and Properties of Liquids

Some of the general properties of liquids are influenced by the intermolecular forces of
attraction present between liquid molecules.

• Vapor Pressure
- pressure of a vapor when it is in contact with its liquid or solid form

For example, we have two beakers containing water—beaker A with a lid and beaker B
without a lid. If we increase the temperature of water, the kinetic energy and
the movement of particles also increase until such point that we can overcome
A B
the IMFA between the water molecules. In that case, the liquid particles will become
gas particles. For beaker B, the gas particles can readily escape from the container since there is no obstruction. On the other hand, the gas particles in
beaker A cannot escape the container because of the lid. Thus, the gas particles are trapped under the lid of the beaker.

The gas particles bouncing around above the liquid are the ones responsible for creating the vapor pressure.

- stronger IMFA, lower vapor pressure

If the IMFA between molecules is strong, the liquid particles will have a hard time to become gas particles and only few gas particles will be formed. If
there is a low number of gas particles moving above the liquid, there will lower vapor pressure.

• Boiliing Point
- temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure
- can also be defined as the temperature where liquid changes to gas

Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises the kinetic energy of the molecules until such point where the energy of the particle movement exceeds the
IMFA that hold them together. Then, the liquid particles transform to gas and are seen as bubbles.

- normal boiling point: temperature at which a liquid boils under an atmospheric pressure of 1 atm (760 mm Hg)
normal boiling point for water: 100 degrees Celsius

At higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is lower. If it is lower, the boiling point will also decrease.

- stronger IMFA, higher boiling point

The stronger the IMFA, the higher energy needed to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules to break these.
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

• Heat of Vaporization
- amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of a substance at its boiling point
- stronger IMFA, larger heat of vaporization

Consider the following:

Substance Boiling Point (℃) Heat of Vaporization (kJ/mol)

Methane (CH4) -164.0 9.2
Water (H2O) 100.0 40.8
In determining the polarity of the molecules on the table, methane is nonpolar while water is polar. Since methane is nonpolar, the only IMFA acting
upon methane molecules is London dispersion forces. For water, the IMFA acting upon water molecules are London dispesion force, dipole-dipole
ineraction and hydrogen bonding. Since water has a stronger IMFA, it has a larger boiling point and heat of vaporization.

• Surface Tension
- property of a liquid to resist an external force and assume a lesser surface area

The molecule at the surface is being attracted to its neighbors. However, there is no attracted molecules on top of the
surface molecules.The molecule on the interior is also attracted to its neighbors, but there’s slightly more since it is more
completely surrounded with other water molecules.

- stronger IMFA, higher surface tension

• Viscosity
- resistance of a liquid to flow
- thickness or thinness of a liquid

Comparing water and honey, water is relatively faster to pour than the honey. Water is described as less viscous than honey.

- stronger IMFA, more viscous

D. Structure and Properties of Water

- At room temperature (25℃), water is colorless, odorless and tasteless.
- It turns to ice (solid form) at 0℃ and 1 atm.
It turns to steam (gas form) at 100℃.
- A water molecule has a bent shape, with 2 partially positive H atoms and a partially negative O atom.
- It is a polar molecule.
- IMFA acting upon water: London dispersion force, dipole-dipole interaction, and hydrogen bonding
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

E. Types and Properties of Solids

Solids can be classified based on the arrangement of the particles.
• Crystalline solids have a highly regular arrangement of particles.
o atoms or molecules exist in a regular, well-defined arrangement called lattice
o unit cell: smallest repeating pattern

TYPE COMPONENTS TYPE OF INTERAXN PROPERTIES

Ionic solids Ions Ionic Hard; high melting point
Moleuclar solids Molecules IMFA Soft; low melting point
Metallic Metal atoms Metallic Wide range if hardness and melting point
Network Nonmetal atoms Covalent Hard; high melting point
Group 8A Group 8A (noble gases) London dispersion force Very low melting point

• Amorphous solids have considerable disorder in their structure.

Example: silicon, rubber, glass

F. Phase Changes and Diagrams

GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

Phase Diagram
- graphical representation of the pressure-temperaturee relationships that apply to the equilibria between the phases of a substance
- useful in determining the combination of temperature and pressure at which a substance will exist as a solid, liquid, or gas

The red curved line shows the temperature-pressure condirtions for solid-gas equilibrium. The blue curved
line for liquid-gas equilibrium while the green line for solid-liquid equilibrium.

Normal boiling point: 100℃ at 1 atm

Normal freezing point: 0℃

Triple point
- conditions where all three phases (Solid, liquid, and gas) coexist in equilibrium
- 0.001℃ and 0.006 atm
Critical point
- temperature-pressure condition at and above the vapor of the susbstance cannot be liquified no
matter how much pressure is applied
- 374℃ and 218 atm
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

G. Solutions
- mixtures of two or more substances evenly distributed throughout a single phase and are in uniform composiiton and properties
- composed of:
• solute: substance being dissolved in a solution; usually present in smaller amount
• solvent: dissolving medium
- the resulting phase of the sol’n normally depends on the phase of the solvent

Types of Sol’n based on the

Composition
Solute Solvent Sol’n
Gas Gas Gas
Gas Liquid Liquid
Gas Solid Solid
Liquid Liquid Liquid
Liquid Solid Solid
Solid Liquid Liquid
Solid Solid Solid

- sol’ns can be also classified depending on the amount of solute present in the sol’n
Unsaturated - Contains less solute than the solvent’s capacity to dissolve
- This means that the sol’n can still dissolve more solute
Saturated - Contains the maximum amount of solute that the solvent can dissolve at a certain temperature
Supersaturated - Contains more dissolved solute that is present in a saturated sol’n
- Unstable; excess solute can crystallize in the sol’n by adding a ‘seed crystal’

H. Energy of Solution Formation

- For two substances to form a solution, they must have the same nature in terms of polarity

1. Overcoming the IMFA in the solvent to give room for the solute
2. Seaprating the solute into its individual components
3. Allowing the solute and solvent to interact to form a sol’n

Steps 1 and 2 require energy to overcome the forces in expanding the solvent and solute and are described
as endothermic process.
Step 3 releases energy and is an exothermic process.

Enthalpy of sol’n (∆): enthalpy change associated with the formation of the sol’n
∆Hsol’n = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3

If ∆Hsol’n is positive, the process is endothermic.

If ∆Hsol’n is negative, the process is endothermic.
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

I. Concentration of Solutions
• Percent by Mass

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒈)

% w/w = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒈)

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒈)

= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆+𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒈)

Example:
1. A solution is prepared by mixing 15.0 g Na2CO3 and 235 g of H2O. Calculate the %w/w of the solution.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
% w/w = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔)
15 𝑔
= 𝑥 100 [Bakit po pinag-add yung 15 at 235? Kasi mass of solute lang yung 15 g and mass of solvent lang si 235 g.]
15 𝑔+235 𝑔
% w/w = 6.00%

2. Calculate the percent by mass of the solution containing 8.60 g of salt in 95.0 g of sol’n.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
% w/w = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔)
8.60 𝑔
= 𝑥 100
95 𝑔
% w/w = 9.05%

3. How many grams of an unknown substance are contained in 2.15 kg of 12.50% sol’n?
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
% w/w = 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔)
𝑥𝑔
12.50% = 1000 𝑔 𝑥 100
2.15 𝑘𝑔 𝑥
1 𝑘𝑔
12.50 (2,150)
=𝑥
100
𝑥 = 268.75 g
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

• Percent by Volume

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒎𝑳)

% v/v = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒎𝑳)

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒎𝑳)

= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆+𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎𝑳)

Example:
1. A wine contains 12% alcohol by volume. Calculate the volume (in mL) of alcohol in 350 mL of the wine.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝐿)
% v/v = 𝑥 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝐿)
𝑥 𝑚𝐿
12% = 𝑥 100
350 𝑚𝐿
12 (350)
=𝑥
100
𝑥 = 42 mL

2. A solution is prepared by dissolving 20 mL of pure hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to make 200 mL of sol’n. What is the percent
by volume of the hydrogen peroxide sol’n?
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝐿)
% v/v = 𝑥 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝐿)
20 𝑚𝐿
= 𝑥 100
200 𝑚𝐿
% w/w = 10%

• Percent by Mass-Volume

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒈)

% m/v = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝒎𝑳)

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒈)

= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆+𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝒎𝑳)

Example:
1. A 50 mL of 12% by mass-volume sol’n was used in an experiment. How many grams of solute does the sol’n contain?
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
% m/v = 𝑥 100
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝐿)
𝑥𝑔
12% = 𝑥 100
50 𝑚𝐿
12 (50)
=𝑥
100
𝑥 = 6.0 g
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

• Mole Fraction
𝒏𝑨
𝒙𝑨 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏𝑨+𝒏𝑩
𝒏𝑩
𝒙𝑩 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏𝑨+𝒏𝑩

𝒙𝑨 + 𝒙𝑩 = 1
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
n (moles) =
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝑴𝑴)

Example:
1. 0.100 mole of NaCl is dissolved into 100 grams of pure water. What is the mole fraction of NaCl? What is the mole fraction of water?
Get the number of moles of NaCl and H2O.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 =
𝑀𝑀 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = 0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 𝑀𝑀 𝐻2𝑂 H= 2 x 1.01 g

𝑛𝐻2𝑂 =
𝑀𝑀 𝐻2𝑂 O = 1 x 16 g
100 𝑔
= 18.02 g/mol
18.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 = 5.55 𝑚𝑜𝑙 This is based on the mass of the element in the periodic table.

𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = 𝑥 100
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙+𝑛𝐻2𝑂
0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 𝑥 100
0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙+ 5.55 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = 0.01

𝑛𝐻2𝑂
𝑥𝐻2𝑂 = 𝑥 100
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙+𝑛𝐻2𝑂
5.55 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 𝑥 100
0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙+ 5.55 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥𝐻2𝑂 = 0.99
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

2. Calculate the mole fraction of each component of a solution containing 65 g of ethanol (C2H5OH) in 350 g of water.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 𝑀𝑀 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 C = 2 x 12.01 g
𝑛𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 =
𝑀𝑀 𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 H = 6 x 1.01 g
65 𝑔
𝑛𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 = O = 1 x 16 g
46.08 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
46.08 g/mol
= 1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2𝑂
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 =
𝑀𝑀 𝐻2𝑂
350 𝑔
=
18.02 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 = 19.42 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑛𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻
𝑥𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 = 𝑥 100
𝑛𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻+𝑛𝐻2𝑂
1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 𝑥 100
1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙+ 19.42 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻 = 0.0677

𝑛𝐻2𝑂
𝑥𝐻2𝑂 = 𝑥 100
𝑛𝐶2𝐻5𝑂𝐻+𝑛𝐻2𝑂
19.42 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 𝑥 100
1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙+ 19.42 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥𝐻2𝑂 = 0.932

• Molarity
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
M=
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒏 (𝑳)
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

= 𝑴𝑴 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒏 (𝑳)

Example:
1. Determine the molarity of a sol’n that contains 25 g of KOH in 1500 mL of sol’n. (Molar mass KOH = 56 g/mol)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
M=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 (𝐿)
1000 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
25 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 𝑥
= 1 𝑘𝑔
1𝐿
56 𝑔
1500 𝑚𝐿 𝑥
1000 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑜𝑙
M = 297.62
𝐿
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

• Molality
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
m=
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝒌𝒈)

Example:
1. Calculate the molal conc’n of a sol’n that contains 18 g of NaOH in 100 mL of water. (Molar mass NaOH = 40 g/mol)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
m=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝑘𝑔)
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
18 𝑔 𝑥
= 40 𝑔
1𝐿 * 1000mL = 1L = 1kg
100 𝑚𝐿 𝑥
1000 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑜𝑙
m = 4.5
𝐿

• Parts Per Million

𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
ppm =
𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍′ 𝒏
𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒈
1 ppm = =
𝒌𝒈 𝑳

1. What is the concentration, in ppm, if 0.808 grams of CaCl2 is dissolved in 250.0 ml of water?
1000 𝑚𝑔
0.808 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2 𝑥
ppm = 1𝐿
1𝑔
250 𝑚𝐿 𝑥
1000 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑔
ppm = 3232
𝐿

J. Solution Stoichiometry
Stoichiometric analysis of solutions involves the use of a balanced chemical equation.
1. Express the amount of substance in moles.
2. Convert the moles of the given substance to the moles of the desired substance using a stoichiometric factor derived from the balanced chemical
equation.
3. Convert the moles of the sought substance to any other desired units or expression.

o Usually the computation starts with the given na naka-grams/kg or mL/L

o First step is to convert it to the number of moles.
o Check the problem. Ano yung mga binanggit na substances? Sila lang yung gagamitin and involved sa computation natin.
o After getting the mole/mole fraction, convert the given to the desired unit.
o Don’t worry, all chemical equations na nasa exam ay naka-balance na para sa inyo.
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

Examples:
[I did not incude the solution of some problems. Try to solve them on your own. If you have questions, you can message me through messenger.]

1. How many liters of 0.53 M HCl is required to neutralize 0.78 g of sodium bicarbonate? (Molar mass, sodium bicarbonate= 105.99 g/mol)
2 HCl + Na2CO3 → 2 NaCl + H2CO3

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝐿 𝐻𝐶𝑙

0.78 Na2CO3 x x x = 0.028 L HCl
105.99 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 0.53 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙

2. Calculate the mass of calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2, that can be produced by reacting 136 mL of 4.00 M nitric acid (HNO3).
(Molar mass, calcium nitrate = 164.1 g/mol)
2 HNO3 + Ca(OH)2→ 2 H2O + Ca(NO3)2

1 𝐿 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3)2 164.1 𝑔 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3)2

136 mL HNO3 x x x x = 44.64 g Ca(NO3)2
1000 𝑚𝐿 1𝐿 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3)2

3. 10. 0 g of Na2CO 3 is reacted completely with 0.115 M of HCl. What is the volume of HCl required?
Na2CO 3 + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + H2O

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 1 𝐿 𝐻𝐶𝑙

10.0 g Na2CO3 x x x = 1.64 L HCl
105.99 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 0.115 𝑚𝑜𝑙

4. A solution of 0.0823 M NaCl is added to 21.40 mL of 0.962 M AgNO3. Calculate the volume of NaCl sol’n required for complete reaxn.
AgNO3 + NaCl→ AgCl + NaNO3

1 𝐿 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 0.962 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 1 𝐿 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

21.40 mL AgNO3 x x x x = 0.25 L NaCl
1000 𝑚𝐿 1 𝐿 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 0.0823 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

5. Using this equation:

Pb(SO4)2 + 4 LiNO3 → Pb(NO3)4 + 2 Li2SO4
How many grams of lithium nitrate (LiNO3) will be needed to make 250 grams of lithium sulfate (Li2SO4)?
Answer: 313.57 g Li2SO4

6. What volume of barium nitrate solution (0.280 M) is required to precipitate all the sulfate ion from 25.0 mL of aluminium sulfate (0.350 M)?
Al2(SO4)3 + 3 Ba(NO3)2 → 3 BaSO4 + 2 Al(NO3)3
Answer: 0.09375 L Ba(NO3)2
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

7. What mass of barium chromate can be precipitated by adding excess barium chloride solution to 50.0 mL of potassium chromate (0.469 M)?
BaCl2 + K2CrO4 → BaCrO4 + 2 KCl
Answer: 5.95 g BaCrO4

8. Calculate the volume of a 0.225 M solution of potassium hydroxide required to react with 0.215 g of acetic acid according to the following reaction.
KOH + CH3COOH → KCH3COO + H2O
Answer: 0.016 L KOH

9. What volume of 0.246 M HNO3 solution is required to react completely with 38.6 mL of 0.0515 M Ba(OH)2?
Ba(OH)2 + 2 HNO3 → Ba(NO3)2 + 2 H2O
Answer: 0.016 L HNO3

10. An excess of AgNO3 reacts with 185.5 mL of an AlCl3 solution to give 0.325 g of AgCl. What is the concentration, in moles per liter, of the AlCl3
solution?
AlCl3 + 3 AgNO3 → 3 AgCl + Al(NO3)3
Answer: 0.0040 moles/liter AlCl3

K. Factors Affecting Solubility

Solubility- maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature

• Nature of Solvent and Solute

- based on the principle “like dissolves like”
Solute Solvent
Ionic and polar Polar
Nonpolar Nonpolar

• Particle Size
- smaller particle size of a solid solute means there is a greater surface area exposed to the solvent

• Stirring
- also helps in increasing the solubility of a solid solute by dispersing the solvent particles around the solute

• Temperature
- for many solid salts dissolved in liquids, solubility increases with T
Solutes that dissolve endothermically Increased solubility when heated
Solutes that dissolve exothermically Decreased solubility when heated

- for gases dissolved in liquids, solubility has an inverse relationship with T

GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
Prepared by: GDVAlmanza

- high KE enhances the motion of the gas particles which allows their escape from the sol’n

• Pressure
- has an effect on the solubility of gases in gas-liquid sol’ns, but has no effect on the solubility of solid salts in water
- solubility of gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid (Henry’s law)
- Ex: effervescence in carbonated drinks signifies escape of solute particles in the sol’n, CO2 dissolved in carbonated drinks.
If a bottle is closed, CO2 is dissolved in the liquid bec of the pressure. When the bottle is opened, the pressure is released and the solubility of
the gas decreases.

L. Colligative Properties
- properties of a sol’n which depend on the number of solute particles in the sol’n
- example: vapor pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation and osmotic pressure

[No computations for this lesson. Just familiarize yourself with the definitions and relationship of the variables].

Solutions that depend on the nature of their components can be classifies as:
- Electrolytic: particles that ionize at all in a sol’n, can conduct electricity
Example: NaCl (strong acid), NaOH (strong base), CH3COOH (weak acid), NH4OH (weak base)

- Nonelectrolytic: do not ionize at all in a sol’n, cannot conduct electricity

Example: table sugar, benzene, chloroform, urea

• Vapor Pressure Lowering

- relationship between the vapor pressure of the solution and the vapor pressure of the solvent depends on the concentration of the solute in
the sol’n which is described by the Raoult’s Law
Raoult’s Law:
Psolvent = XsolventPosolvent
where:
Psolvent is the vapor pressure of the solvent above the solution
Xsolvent is the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution
Posolvent is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent

- adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent lowers the solvent’s vapor pressure

- when a solute is present, a mixture of solute and solvent occupies the sol’n and fewer particles enter the gaseous phase
- the greater the number of solute particles, the lower the vapor pressure
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
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• Freezing Point Depression

- depending on what the solvent is, one mole of any nonelectrolyte will lower the freezing point of a given amount of solvent by a constant
amount called freezing point depression constant (Kf)
∆Tf = Tsol’n – Tpure solvent
= - Kfm
where:
T is the change in freezing point of the solvent
Kf is the molal freezing point depression constant/cryoscopic constant
m is the molal concentration of the solute in the solution

- freezing point of a solution is less than the freezing point of a pure solvent
- this means that a sol’n must be cooled to a lower temperature than the pure solvent in order for freezing to occur

• Boiling Point Elevation

- when a solute is added to a solvent, the VP of the solvent is less than the VP above the solvent
- BP of a sol’n will be greater than the BP of the pure solvent bec. sol’n will need to be heated to a higher T in order for VP to become equal to
the external pressure

∆Tb = Tsol’n – Tpure solvent

= Kbm
where:
T is the change in freezing point of the solvent
Kb is the molal boiling point elevation constant/ebulloscopic constant
m is the molal concentration of the solute in the solution
GNCHM 2 – General Chemistry 2
Reviewer | 1st Quarterly Examination
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• Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis: process through which a solvent flows through a semipermeable membrane from an area of less concentration to an area of greater
concentration
Semipermeable membrane: selectively porous material which only allows certain substances to pass through it
Osmotic Pressure: pressure needed to be appliied to stop osmosis

During osmosis involving water, water tends to equalize the concentration

of the solution in both sides of the membrane.

Ang pagkatuto ay higit pa sa mataas na grado dahil ang mundo at ikaw ay ‘di katumbas at ‘di limitado sa idinidikta ng mga numero.
Huwag matakot bumagsak. Matakot kang pumasa nang walang natututunan.

Love,
Ma’am Dani