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 JIF 104
Physics II / Practical Ib

Dr. Nurul Sabihah

Zakaria
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Contribution of coursework and

final examination
Final examination
60%

Assignments
10%

Continuous examination
20%

3 laboratory reports
10%
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REFERENCES
Callister, William D., and David G. Rethwisch,
Materials Science and Engineering, SI Version,
John Wiley & Sons

JIF 104
MODULE 2
Properties of Liquids Module by Sabar Bauk

JIF 104
MODULE 3
Properties of Gases Module by Sabar Bauk
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JIF 104
Physics II / Practical Ib

Lesson 1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
&
INTERATOMIC BONDING
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LEARNING OUTCOME
• Identify the difference types of bonding in the
formation of matter
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atom
Proton
Electron
Neutron
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WHAT IS AN ATOM?
• All matter is made
of atoms
• Atoms are the
smallest part of the
elements
– The building
blocks of matter
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THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

In neutral atom:
number of protons = number of electrons
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Isotope
Isotopes
• Atoms that have
the same number
of protons but
different
numbers of
neutrons

http://education.jlab.org/glossary/isotope.html
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What holds an atom together?

• The protons and neutrons are held
together in the nucleus by the strong
nuclear force.
• The negatively charged electron is
attracted to the positively charged
nucleus by a Coulombic attraction.
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What is Columbic attraction?

• The force of attraction between positive and
negative charges.
• If the charges on the particles have opposite
signs, the force will be one of attraction.
• If the charges on the particles have the same
signs, the force will be one of repulsion.
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ELECTRONS IN ATOMS
Atomic Models
Quantum Numbers
Electron configurations
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Development of atomic theory

• John Dalton (1800)
– All matter is made of atoms
– Atoms cannot be broken down into anything
simpler
– All the atoms of a particular element are identical
to each other and different from the atoms of other
elements
– Atoms are rearranged in a chemical reaction
– Compounds are formed when two or more
different kinds of atoms join together
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• J J Thomson (1897)
– the atom contained
smaller pieces.
– Atom breaks into
electrons
– Electron suspended in a
positively charged
electric field
– Must be positive charge
to balance the negative
charge of electron
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• Ernest Rutherford (1911)

• the atom as a tiny, dense,
positively charged core
called a nucleus
• all the mass is
concentrated, around
which the light, negative
constituents, called
electrons, circulate at
some distance.
• Atom’s mass is
mostly in nucleus
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• Bohr’s (1912) • electrons orbited the nucleus

due to Coulomb forces

• electron can jump from a path

on one level to a path on
another level

• electron have definite, fixed

energy
nucleus • the closer electron to the
nucleus, the less energy
the electron possess
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From Bohr model to Quantum mechanics

But problems existed with Bohr theory —

– theory only successful for the H atom.
– introduced quantum idea artificially.
• So, we go on to QUANTUM or WAVE MECHANICS
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• Wave mechanical model (1920) - Erwin Schrödinger & de

Broglie
• Electrons as Waves
• electrons and light behaved not
only as particles, but also as waves
• Electron have properties for
both waves and particles
• Electron do not follow definite path
• There are areas around the nucleus that
correspond with certain energy levels
(like the Bohr model)
• Areas around the nucleus
where the electron probably is
The orbital that describes
(energy levels) are called the hydrogen electron in
orbital its lowest possible energy
state.
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Bohr Model vs Wave Mechanical Model

•Both models allow electrons to only be at particular
energy levels. (ladder model)
•The wave mechanical model is different in that it does
NOT define an exact path the electron takes (No more
ring model)
•Wave mechanical model uses probability to estimate the
probability of finding an electron in a certain position.
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The Bohr theory (left) sees an electron as

Wave mechanics (right) sees
a particle occupying certain orbits, which
an electron as a wave washing
correspond to certain energy levels. The
back and forth in the atom in
orbits are labeled N = 1, N = 2, etc. An
certain patterns only. The
electron can move from one energy level
wave patterns and energy
to another--for example, through paths a,
levels correspond exactly.
b, c, or d.
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Task 1

Draw a timeline/history
of atomic models
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Some Important Quantum Terms

• An energy level of an electron is a region

around the nucleus where the electron is likely
to be moving.

• A quantum of energy is the amount of energy

required to move an electron from it’s present
energy level to the next one.

• A quantum leap is a change in energy levels.

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Quantum Numbers
• Parameter that characterized every electron in an
atom according to size, shape and orientation

4 parameter/quantum numbers:
• principle quantum number, n = 1, 2, 3, …n
• subsidiary or azimuthal quantum number, l = 0, 1, 2, … n-1
• magnetic quantum number, ml= 0, ±1, ±2, … ±n-1
• spin quantum number, mS= ±½

The Pauli Exclusion Principle:

• Two electrons in an atom can never have exactly the same
set of all 4 quantum numbers (n, l, ml, mS)
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Electronic structure of isolated atoms

Quantum Number Designation

n = principal (energy level-shell) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (K, L, M, N, O,…)
l = angular (sub shell, shape) s, p, d, f (n of them to max of 4)
ml = magnetic - l to + l by integers, including 0
ms = spin ½, -½

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Shells and Subshells

For n = 1, l = 0 and ml = 0
There is only one subshell and that subshell
has a single orbital
(ml has a single value ---> 1 orbital)
This subshell is labeled s (“ess”) and we call
this orbital 1s
Each shell has 1 orbital labeled s.
It is SPHERICAL in shape.
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Principle quantum number (n)

• Bohr had already come
up with principle N-shell
quantum numbers (n) M-shell
• describe the size of
the given orbital L-shell

• Each principle quantum

number refers to a
principle energy level
K-shell
in an atom assigned in
values of increasing
energy. n=1,2,3…
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Azimuthal/Angular quantum number (l)

• describes the shape of
the orbital.
• l must be greater than
or equal to zero.
• l values are also
assigned corresponding
letters - Can be any
integer between 0 and n
-1
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magnetic quantum number (ml)

• any integer between -l and +l. This value specifies an orbitals
position in space.
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The spin quantum number (Ms )

• The spin quantum number (Ms ) is a vector with a
magnitude of 1/2 and a direction that is either + or -.
• Each electron is given it's own spin quantum number which
helps us distinguish between two electrons that are in the
same orbital. When two electrons are in the same orbital
they will spin in opposite directions, as shown below.
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The atomic structure of sodium, atomic

number 11, showing the electrons in the
K, L, and M quantum shell
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The complete set of quantum numbers for each of the 11 electrons in sodium
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Electrons in atoms can only

be in certain “states”
• The energy is
“quantized” – only
certain levels are
permitted
• The level can change, but
only if exactly the correct
energy is emitted or
absorbed
• There are 7 energy levels
which corresponds to the
rows or periods on the
periodic table.
• Within each level, there
are sublevels designated
by letters: s, p, d, f
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Energy Levels

• The farther away from the nucleus an energy level is,

the closer together they are.

• An electron easier to escape the atom at the outer

energy levels
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Orbital Shapes
• The sublevels are
then divided
further into
orbitals- regions
where electrons
are likely to be
found.

• Some sublevels
have multiple How principal levels can be divided into
sublevels
orbitals.
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Types of Orbitals
s-orbitals - sphere shaped,
exist as a single orbital
The relative sizes of the 1s
and 2s orbitals of hydrogen.

p-orbitals - sort of pear shaped,

come in 3’s.
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d-orbitals - much more complex shape, come in sets of 5.

The shapes and labels of the five 3d orbitals.

f-orbitals - even more complex than d-orbitals, come in sets of 7.

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Diagram of principal energy levels 1 and 2.

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Electron Spin
• Electrons have a property called spin

• Electrons can only spin 2 directions

• 2 opposite directions an electron spins with arrows, or

• Two electrons must have opposite spin to fill an orbital

• Two electrons with the same spin cannot occupy the same
orbital

• All orbitals can hold a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite

spin.
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ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
• the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule in atomic or
molecular orbitals
• the arrangement of the electrons in the shells.

the principle energy level the number of electrons in the orbital

1s1
Hydrogen’s electron configuration

electron is an s-orbital.
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Guidelines
• Each orbital can hold only two electrons. Electrons that occur
together in an orbital are called an electron pair.

• An electron will always try to enter the orbital with the lowest
energy.

• An electron can occupy an orbital on its own, but it would rather

occupy a lower-energy orbital with another electron before
occupying a higher-energy orbital..

• The s subshell can hold 2 electrons.

• The p subshells can hold 6 electrons

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electron state
• values of energy that are permitted for electrons

Pauli Exclusion Principle

• The most electrons any orbital can hold is 2 electrons of
opposite spins.
• One’s spin is and the other is .

stable electron configurations

• have complete s and p subshells
• tend to be unreactive, inert gasses
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valence electrons
• the electrons on the outer most part of the atom

• participate in the bonding between atoms to form atomic and

molecular aggregates.

• tend to control the physical and chemical properties of solids

• Example : Oxygen (1s2 2s2 2p4)

• has 6 valence electrons

The 2 electrons on the top

represent the s2 and the four
other electrons represent the p4
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• Electrons fill levels in

order of increasing
energy
• Example: Iron, Z = 26:
1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
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Periodic Table

inert gases
give up 1e-
give up 2e-

accept 2e-
accept 1e-
give up 3e-

H He
Li Be O F Ne
Na Mg S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra

Electropositive elements: Electronegative elements:

Readily give up electrons Readily acquire electrons
to become + ions. to become - ions.
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Electronegativity
• the tendency for atoms of the element to attract
electrons when combined with another element.
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• Ranges from 0.9 to 4.1,

• Large values: tendency to acquire electrons.
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Relative atomic sizes for selected atoms

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Electronegativity and Atom Size

Task 2
• Compare the atom sizes and electronegativies.

• Where is the largest atom? Where is the smallest?

• How do these relate to electronegatitivies?

• Which element is more electronegative?

• Be or Ba
• F or Cs
• Ca or As
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ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS

Ionic bonding
Covalent bonding
Metallic bonding
Van Der Waals Bonding
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Force (F)
INTERATOMIC FORCES
e e
Short range e Overlap of
electrostatic e N e N e
repulsion the electron
force
e e cloud
Comes closer Repulsive regime
F= 0 (+ve)
ro ~ 10nm
Separation
r ˃ ro distance (r)
•both (σ/r12) and (σ/r6) = 0 e e
•F = 0 Attractive regime
•Large separation distance = e (-ve)
N e e N e
no interaction
e e
Intermediate r zone
•(σ/r6) dominates over (σ/r12) Comes in contact
• F= Net “-ve” (attraction) Intermediate r zone

Small r
•(σ/r12) dominates over (σ/r6)
•F = Net “+ve” (repulsion)
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Thank you