TOPIC 2

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
2.1
THE NUCLEAR ATOM
 ESSENTIAL IDEA
The mass of an atom is concentrated in
its minute, positively charged nucleus.
NATURE OF SCIENCE (1.8)
Evidence and improvements in instrumentation - alpha
particles were used in the development of the nuclear model
of the atom that was first proposed by Rutherford.
NATURE OF SCIENCE (2.3)
Paradigm shifts – the subatomic particle theory of matter
represents a paradigm shift in science that occurred in the late
1800s.
INTERNATIONAL-MINDEDNESS
Isotope enrichment uses physical properties
to separate isotopes of uranium and is
employed in many countries as part of nuclear
energy and weaponry programs.
 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Richard Feynman: “If all of scientific knowledge
were to be destroyed and only one sentence
passed on to the next generation, I believe it is
that all things are made of atoms.” Are the
models and theories which scientists create
accurate descriptions of the natural world, or are
they primarily useful interpretations for
prediction, explanation and control of the natural
world?
No subatomic particle can be or will be directly
observed. Which ways of knowing do we use to
interpret indirect evidence, gained through the
use of technology?
UNDERSTANDINGS/KEY IDEA
2.1.A
Atoms contain a positively charged
dense nucleus composed of
protons and neutrons (nucleons).
UNDERSTANDINGS/KEY IDEA
2.1.B
Negatively charged electrons
occupy the space outside the
nucleus.
Protons – found in nucleus
Neutrons – found in nucleus
Electrons – surround the
nucleus in energy levels
Element – substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by
a chemical reaction.
Atom – smallest particle (species) of an
element that retains the properties of
that element.
Compound – the chemical combination
of two or more elements
MODELS OF THE ATOM
John Dalton – Dalton’s atomic theory
JJ Thomson – plum pudding model and
discovered the electron
Ernest Rutherford – gold foil experiment and
discovered the proton
Niels Bohr – solar system model where the
electrons orbit the nucleus
Quantum Mechanical Model – modern theory
where electrons exist in cloud shapes or
“orbitals”
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
1. All elements are composed of atoms.
2. Each element has atoms that are different
from the atoms of any other element.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created or
destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple
ratios to form chemical compounds.
5. One type of atom cannot be changed into
another type of atom by a chemical reaction.
 MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

Not all aspects of Dalton’s theory proved to be

correct.
Atoms can be subdivided.
Atoms can have different masses (isotopes).

Important parts that are still relevant:

All matter is composed of atoms.
Atoms of one element differ in properties from
those of every other element.
 JJ THOMSON’S MODEL
PLUM PUDDING MODEL
Discovered the electron with its negative
charge
Adapted the Dalton model to display negative
electrons suspended in a positive “fluid”

Looks like a chocolate

Positive gooey stuff
chip cookie!

Negative electron, Also called the “Plum

held in place Pudding” model.
 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL

Discovered the positively charged, dense

nucleus
Contained most of the mass of the atom
Electrons surrounded the central nucleus
Most of the atom was empty space
Positive nucleus

Negative electrons

Empty space
There’s a problem with the Rutherford
Model…
What do positive and negative charges
do?
They attract to each other!
So, in this model, why don’t the e- just
move into the nucleus?
 BOHR’S MODEL
Neils Bohr had a possible
solution…
Instead of the electrons just hanging
out around the nucleus (which would lead
them to crash into it)…
Maybe the electrons had energy, and maybe
they “orbited” the nucleus like planets orbit
the Sun!
Bohr came up with the idea that the
size of an electron’s orbit was related to
how much energy the electron had.
the energy level of an electron would
determine how far away from the nucleus
the electron would be.
Energy Levels
Energy levels are like the steps on a
ladder:
You can’t stand between the steps on a
ladder, and electrons cannot hang out
between energy levels.
Number the energy levels: n = 1, 2, 3, 4,
…
Energy Levels
Energy levels are n=5
different from the

Increasing Energy!
n=4
steps on a ladder n=3
because they are NOT
evenly spaced! n=2

n=1
(lowest energy an
e- can have)

Nucleus
(ground floor)
Nice, normal ladder Energy level ladder
Quantum Mechanical Model
Now, we know that electrons do not follow in
specific paths around the nucleus
Instead, we currently believe that they pop in and
out of existence, so fast it’s crazy.
• Like camera flashes going off when a superstar walks
in!

Quantum Mechanics is used to explain this

crazy behavior
It’s based on probabilities (chances) that something
will be true.
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL
Quantum Mechanics uses a “cloud”
model to describe where the electron is
likely to be found.
These clouds take on particular shapes
based on where an electron with a
specific energy is most likely to be
found. There is a 90% chance that
the electron is somewhere
in here.
Quantum Mechanical Model - Orbitals

Quantum Mechanics keeps the idea of

energy levels – these are actually the
rows on the periodic table.
It also adds sublevels, known as “atomic
orbitals”
These orbitals are referred to as s, p, d, f
The shapes of atomic orbitals depend on
the energy levels.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to use the nuclear symbol

ZX to deduce the number of
A

protons, neutrons and electrons in

atoms and ions.
Atomic number – number of protons in
the nucleus
Mass number – number of protons plus
neutrons in an atom
Isotope – atoms with the same number
of protons but different numbers of
neutrons (in other words different mass
numbers)
SHORTHAND NOTATION

X
MASS NUMBER (A) = PROTONS + NEUTRONS

A
Z
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) = PROTONS
Ion – atom that has lost or gained an
electron
Cation – positive ion formed by the loss
of one or more electrons
Anion – negative ion formed by the gain
of one or more electrons
Given shorthand notation, isotopic
information or an ion, you should be
able to figure out how many protons,
neutrons and electrons are present.
Remember the proton number identifies
the element.
To be neutral, electrons and protons
must equal.
If you have an ion, your electrons will
be either more or less than the protons
depending upon the charge.
ISOTOPE SYMBOLS
Chlorine exists as 2 isotopes: 35Cl and
37
Cl
These can also be written as chlorine-
35 and chlorine-37.
The difference is the number of
neutrons.
EXAMPLES
1. Chlorine-35 has 17p, 17e, and 18n
2. Al3+ has 13p, 10e and 14n
3. F- has 9p, 10e, and 10n
 GUIDANCE

Relative masses and charges of

the subatomic particles should be
known. The mass of the electron
can be considered negligible.
Masses and charges of sub-atomic
particles
RELATIVE RELATIVE
PARTICLE MASS CHARGE

PROTON 1 +1

ELECTRON 0.0005 -1

NEUTRON 1 0
UNDERSTANDINGS/KEY IDEA
2.1.C
The mass spectrometer is used to
determine the relative atomic mass
of an element from its isotopic
composition.
THE MASS SPECTROMETER
The mass spectrometer is used to
measure the masses of different
isotopes and their relative abundance.
It has 5 basic operations.
MASS SPECTRA
The results of the mass spectrometer
are presented in the form of a mass
spectrum.

The mass spectra for

Molybdenum looks like this.
There are 7 isotopes shown
with their % abundance.
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an
element is the average mass of an atom
of the element taking into account all its
isotopes and their relative abundance.
This is why the atomic mass is not a
whole number.
 APPLICATION/SKILLS

Be able to calculate non-integer

relative atomic masses and
abundance of isotopes from given
data, including mass spectra.
The masses of atoms of all elements
actually range from 1x10-24 to 1x10-22g.
These numbers are difficult to manage
so we use relative values.
To use relative values, a standard has
to be agreed upon.
The carbon-12 isotope was chosen as
the standard in 1961 and was given the
relative mass of 12.000 exactly.
The masses of all other elements are
measured relative to 12C.
EXAMPLE 1
What is the relative atomic mass of
chlorine if it has two isotopes with the
following abundances: 35Cl at 75% and
37
Cl at 25%?
Multiply the isotope mass by the
abundance and add them together.
(35 x .75) + (37 x .25) = 35.5amu
EXAMPLE 2
Boron exists in 2 isotopic forms, 10B and
11
B. Use your periodic table to find the
abundances of the two isotopes.
You must recognize that the atomic mass
for Boron is 10.81 so it should make sense
to you that more of 11B exists since 11 is
closer to 10.81 than 10 is.
Let x atoms be 10B, therefore 11B would be
1 – x.
Remember you have to multiply the
isotope mass by the abundance to get total
mass.
10x + 11(1-x) = 10.81
10x + 11 – 11x = 10.81
11 – x = 10.81
11-10.81 = x
.19 = x
So the abundances are 10B = 19.00% and
11
B = 81.00%
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the average atomic mass of
the following element from the mass
spec data.
.813(10) + .187(11) =
10.19 amu

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Compare the properties of the isotopes
of an element.
Isotopes show the same chemical
properties as their parent element since
neutrons do not affect how they react.
Isotopes with more neutrons are
heavier and move more slowly at a
given temperature. This can be used as
a means to separate them.
The difference in neutrons does affect
physical properties like boiling and
melting points, mass, density and rate
of diffusion for gases.
Remember a physical property is
something that can be measured
without changing the chemical
composition of the substance.
Citations
International Baccalaureate Organization. Chemistry Guide,
First assessment 2016. Updated 2015.

Brown, Catrin, and Mike Ford. Higher Level Chemistry. 2nd

ed. N.p.: Pearson Baccalaureate, 2014. Print.

Most of the information found in this power point comes

directly from this textbook.

The power point has been made to directly complement the

Higher Level Chemistry textbook by Catrin and Brown and is
used for direct instructional purposes only.