RADIATION PRODUCTION

AND CHARACTERISTICS
(LECTURE)
3 units

By : Joseph Tarranza Magbuo RRT, MSRT

Objectives:
• Describe fundamental atomic structure.
• Explain the processes of ionization.
• Describe the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Atom
• Smallest unit of matter that cannot be divided.
• Came from the Greek word “ atomos “ meaning
uncut or indivisible.
• It was coined by a Greek philosopher,
Democritus.
• Are electrically neutral: the number of protons
inside the nucleus is equal to the number of
electrons outside the nucleus
 Dalton Atom
1808 – John Dalton
“ Eye and Hook Affair”
Dmetri Mendeleev – arranged the periodic table in order of
increasing atomic mass.

Group 1 – Alkali metal – soft metals that combine readily with

oxygen and react violently with water.

Group VII – halogen – easily vaporized and combines with

metals to form water – soluble salts.

Group VIII – noble gases – highly resistant to reaction with

other elements.
 Thompson Atom
1890 – J.J Thompson
“Plum Pudding”
Plum – represented negative electric
charges ( electron)
Pudding – shapeless mass of uniform
positive electrification.
“Plum Pudding”
 Rutherford atom

1991 – Ernest Rutherford

“ Nuclear model”
- Describe the atom as continuing a small
dense, positively charged centre surrounded
by a negative cloud of electron.
- He called the center of the atom “nucleus”
Nuclear Model
 Bohr Atom
1913 – Niels Bohr
“Miniature Solar System”
- Bohr atom contains a small, dense,
positively charged nucleus by
negatively charged electrons that
revolve in fixed, well defined orbits
about the nucleus.
 Quantum Mechanical
Model of Atom
Erwin Schrodinger
- which treat electron as matter waves.
Electrons have an intrinsic property called spin
and an electron can have one of two possible
spin values: spin – up or spin down.
- Two electrons occupying the same orbital must
have opposite spins
Fundamental Particles
Protons – positively charged particle found
within the nucleus of an atom.
- Has a small mass of 1.673x10-27kg.
- Ultimately determines the chemical behavior
of an atom
- Determines the chemical element because
the number of proton represents the atomic
number (Z).
- Discovered by Goldstein in 1886
- Atomic mass number is 1
Neutrons – neutral subatomic particle and is found within
the nucleus of an atom.
- Are not very stable particle
- Has a mass of 1.675x10-27kg.
- The heaviest fundamental particle of an atom
- Has an atomic mass number of 1
- Discovered by James chadwick in 1932
Electrons – negatively charged particles found in the
extra nuclear portion of an atom.
- Has a small mass of 9.102x10-31kg
- The lightest particle of an atom and behaves as the
smallest magnet because it spins and revolves
around the nucleus at the speed of light in precisely
fixed orbits, just like earth revolving around the sun
hence, induces magnetic field.
- Discovered by Joseph John Thompson in 1897 while
investigating the properties of cathode ray tube.
Nucleus – is small, dense, centrally part of an atom.
- Has a diameter of 5x10-15m.
- The heaviest part of the atom
- Consist of subatomic particles, positively charged
protons, and neutral charges neutrons, (Nucleons)
- Discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1911.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
- No two orbital electrons in an atom
move with exactly the same motion.
Orbital Electrons
all orbital electrons are arrange on a series of
concentric shell that are designated as K,L,M,N,O,P,Q
in the order of increasing distance from the nucleus.
- The electrons in the inner shells are tightly bound to
the nucleus, and only Roentgen rays, Gamma rays or
high-energy particles can damage these shells.
Electrons in the outer shells are on the lower levels
and can easily affected by rays of lesser energy, such
as ultraviolet or visible lights rays
 Electron Shell /
Energy Level
- Electrons can exist only in certain shells, which
represent different electron binding energy or
energy levels.
- The farther an electron to the nucleus, the lower
is its binding energy.
- As the distance from the nucleus increase, the
maximum number of electrons that can exist in
each shell increases also
Electron Arrangement

2n2
n= where n is the shell number.
Physicist call the shell number n the
principal quantum number
 Electron Arrangement
2n2
- the maximum number of electrons that can only occupy a shell.

K = 2(1) 2 = 2 electrons

L = 2(2) 2 = 8 electrons

M = 2(3)2 = 18 electrons

N= 2(4)2 = 32 electrons

o = 2(5)2 = 50 electrons

p = 2(6)2 = 72 electrons

Q = 2(7)2 = 98 electrons
Electron Arrangement

- Oxygen has 8 electrons; 2 occupy

the k shell and 6 occupy the L shell.
Oxygen is in the 2 period and the 6
nd th

group of the periodic table.

Electron Arrangement

- The number of electrons in the outer shell of

an atom is equal to its group in the periodic
table.
- The number of electrons in the outermost shell
determines the valence of an atom.
- The number of the outermost electron shell of
an atom is equal to its period in the periodic
table.
Electron Arrangement
No outer shell can contain more than 8
electrons (Octet Rule)

Periodic Table:
8 groups (vertical) / column
7 periods (horizontal) row
 Electron Binding
Energy
- The strength of attachment of an electron towards
the nucleus influenced by electrostatic law: “
like charges repel; unlike charges attract.”
- The minimum energy required to remove an
electron from its orbit.
- The closer an electron to the nucleus, the more
tightly it is bound because electrons are in debt
energy.
Atomic Nomenclature
Atomic Nomenclature
A – atomic mass number
- number of protons plus the number of
neutrons (z + n) = A

Z – atomic number (# of proton - # of neutron) A-N=Z

n- number of neutron A-Z = n

Atomic Nomenclature
- The number of protons (Z) plus the
number of neutron (n) of an atom is
called atomic mass number, symbolized
by A.
- The atomic mass number is a whole
number
- The atomic mass number and the precise
mass of an atom are not equal.
Atomic Nomenclature
- An atom’s atomic mass number is a whole
number that is equal to the number of
nucleons in the atom. The actual atomic mass
of an atom is determined by measurement and
rarely in a whole number.
- 135Ba has A = 135 because its nucleus
contains 56 proton and 79 neutrons. The
atomic mass of 135Ba is 134.91amu
 Isotopes (Z)
- Atoms that have the same number but
different atomic mass numbers are
isotopes
 Isobar (A)

- atomic nuclei that have the same

atomic mass number but different
atomic number
 Isotones (n)
- Atoms that have the same
number of neutrons but different
number of protons
 isomers
- Isomers have the same atomic number and
the same atomic mass number.
- Isomers are identical atoms except that they
exist at different energy state because of
differences in nucleon arrangement
 Atomic Atomic mass Neutron

Arrangement Number Number Number

Isotope Same Different Different

Isobar Different Same Different

Isotone Different Different Same

Isomer Same Same Same

Combinations of Atoms

1.Covalent bonds ( sharing)

2.Ionic Bonds ( giving)
Covalent bonds
(sharing)
• Example: H2O
• Characterized by the sharing of elements.
• Oxygen and Hydrogen combine in to water through
covalent bonds.
• Oxygen has six electrons in its outermost shell. It
has room for two more electrons so in a water, two
hydrogen atoms share their single electrons
with the oxygen.
 Ionic Bonds (giving)

 Example: NaCl
 Sodium and chloride combine into salt through ionic
bonds.
 Sodium has one electron in its outermost shell.
Chloride has space for one more electron in its
outermost shell. The sodium will give up its electron
to the chlorine. When it does, it becomes ionized
because it has lost electron and now has an
imbalance of electric charges
Fundamental force in
nature
1. Gravitational Force
 Attract only
 Acts in a mass through an associate gravitational field
 Express by Newton’s Law
2. Electrostatic Force
 Attracts and repels
 Acts in a charge through an associate electric field
 Expressed by Coulomb’s Law
3. Magnetic Force
 Attracts and repels
 Acts in a pole through an associate magnetic field
 Expressed by Gauss Law
 Radioactivity

is the emission of particles

and energy in order to
became stable.
Radioactive disintegration /
Radioactive decay
- To reach stability the nucleus
spontaneously emits particles and
energy and transforms itself into
another atom
 Types of radioactivity

1. Natural radioactivity
• Background Radiation
• Cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation water/ food/ air

2. Artificial Radioactivity
• Fallout
• Medical applicants
• Nuclear weapon testing, nuclear generation
Modes of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay result in emission of alpha particles,

beta particles and usually gamma rays.
Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable
atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation
1. Alpha Decay – is a type of radioactive decay in which a
particle with two neutrons and two protons is ejected from
the nucleus of a radioactive
2. Beta Decay
A. Beta - Minus Decay – when, in a
nucleus with too many protons or too many
neutrons, one of the proton or neutrons, one of
the proton or neutron is transformed into the
other.
- - neutron changes to proton when the nucleus
has an excess of neutrons
B. Beta-Plus Decay – (positron emission)
proton changes to neutron when the nucleus
has an excess of protons
Electron Capture – the nucleus
capture one of the orbital
electrons (usually K-electron)
which converts a proton in to a
neutron.
- an inner orbital electron is
captured by the nucleus
converting a proton into
neutron.
Gamma Disintegration
Process
a. Gamma Decay – associated with alpha and beta decay. Alpha or
beta decay usually leaves the product nucleus in excited state.
These go down to their group state by gamma ray emission.
b. Internal conversion – transfer of nuclear energy to an orbital
electron causing it to be ejected from the atom.
c. Isometric transition – a decay involving neither the emission nor
the capture of a particle. The nucleus simply charges from a higher
to lower energy level by emitting a gamma proton.
 Half-life
1. Physical half-life (radioactive half-life) - the period of time
require for a quantity of radioactivity to be reduced to one half
its original value.
2. Biological half-life – the time required for the body to eliminate
one half of the dose of any substance by the regular processes
elimination(by way of the urine, feces, exhalation and
perspiration)
3. Effective half-life – the time required for the radioactivity from a
given amount a radioactivity element deposited in the tissues or
organs to diminish by 50% as a result of the combined action of
radioactive decay and loss of material by biologic elimination
 ELECTROSTATIC
- Is the study of electric charges in stationary
form.
- Electric charge comes in discreet units and
is either positive or negative. The smallest
unit is associated with the electron and
proton.
- The electric charge associated with an
electron with an electron and proton have the
same magnitude but opposite signs.
 Electric Charge and
Electrical Forces:

•Electrons have a negative electrical

charge.
Protons have a positive electrical
charge.

•These charges interact to create an

electrical force.
 Electric Charge and
Electrical Forces:

Like charges produce repulsive forces –

so they repel each other (e.g. electron and
electron or proton and proton repel each other).
Unlike charges produce attractive forces
– so they attract each other (e.g. electron and
proton attract each other).
 Electric Charge and
Electrical Forces:

•A very highly simplified model of an atom has most of

the mass in a small, dense center called the nucleus.

•The nucleus has positively charged protons and

neutral neutrons.

•Negatively charged electrons move around the

nucleus at much greater distance.
 Electric Charge and
Electrical Forces:

•Ordinary atoms are neutral because

there is a balance between the
number of positively charged protons
and negatively charged electrons.
 Electric Charge

Electrons move from atom to atom to

create ions..
positively charge ions result from the loss
of electrons and are called cations.
Negatively charge ions result from the
gain of electrons and are called anions.
• (A) neutral atom has no net charge because the
numbers of electrons and protons are balanced.
•
(B) Removing an electron produces a net positive
charge; the charged atom is called a positive ion
(cation).
•
(C) The addition of an electron produces a net
negative charge and a negative ion (anion).
 Electrification can be
created by the following:
•Contact - a connection that causes the flow
electron
•Friction - a buildup of electron caused by
rubbing object together.
•Induction - using the electric field of a
charged object to confer a charge on an
uncharged object.
Friction:
Induction:
Contact:
• An object is said to be electrified
if it has too few or too many
electrons. The most familiar
example of such electric charge
is static electricity.
• Electrification occurs when an
object becomes charged by the
removal or additional of
electrons
• Matter is electrically neutral
because in the entire universe
the total number of negative
charges equals the total number
of positive charges.
 The outer shell electrons of
some types of atoms however
are loosely bounded and can
easily be removed.
Removal of this electron
electrifies the substances from
which they were removed and
result in static electricity.
• Positive electric charges
do not move. The transfer
of electrons from one
object to another causes
the first to be positively
electrified and the second
to be negatively electrified.
• The EARTH (electric
ground)  behaves as a
huge reservoir for stray
electric charges.
The smallest unit of
electric charge is an
electron(-).
The fundamental unit of electrical charge
is the COULOMB (C)
1 C = 6.3 x 10 18 electron charges

1C
6.3 x 10 18 electric charges

= 1.6 x 10 -19 C/electric charges

 Electrostatic Law:
1. Unlike charges attract; like charges repel
• Associated with each electric charges is an electric
field
• Uncharged particles do not have an electric field
• The force of attraction between unlike charges or
repulsion between like charges is due to the electric
field. It is called an electric force.
 Electrostatic Law:

2. The addition or removal of

electron is called
ELECTRIFICATION

3. Only negative charges can

move in solids.
 Electrostatic Law:
4. Coulomb’s Law :
Electrostatic force is directly
proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between
them

q1 q 2
F k 2
d
 Electrostatic Law:
Force Fields:
The condition of space around an object
is changed by the presence of an
electrical charge.

The electrical charge produces a force

field, that is called an electrical field since
it is produced by electrical charge.
 Electrostatic Law:

5. Electric Charge Distribution

When an object becomes electrified, the
electrical charges are distribution throughout
the object.
Example: thunder cloud; electrified
copper wire
 Electrostatic Law:

6. Electrified Charge concentration

Electric charges are
concentrated along the sharpest
curvature of the surface.
Ex: Electric Cattle rod
 Electric Potential
• Stored energy
• has the ability to the work when this energy is
released
• the unit of electric potential is volt (V)
• Electric potential is sometimes termed
Electromotive force (EMF) or VOLTAGE
100V- house
220V- x-ray
 ELECTRODYNAMICS

•the study of charges in

motion
•Electricity
•Electric current
Four Electrical state of
matter

1. Conductors

matter through which electrons

flow easily

copper, aluminum, water

Four Electrical state of
matter

2. Insulators

• matter that inhibits the flow of

electrons

• glass, clay, earth like material

 Four Electrical state of
matter

3. Semiconductors
• William Shockley, 1946
• matter that under some conditions behaves
as an insulators and under other conditions
act as a conduction
• Silicon and germanium
• transistors, microchip, computer technology
 Four Electrical state of
matter
4. Superconductivity
• is the property of limited resistance to
electron flow below critical
temperature
• allow the flow of electron without any
resistance
1. Superconductor Niobium No resistance to electron flow
Titanium No electric potential required
must be very cold
2. Conductor Copper Variable resistance
Aluminum Obeys Ohm's Law
Required voltage
3. Semiconductor Silicon Can be conductive
Germanium Can be resistive
Basis for computer technology
4. Insulator Rubber Does not permit electron flow
Glass Extremely high resistance
Necessary with high voltage
 Electric Circuit

When the resistance is controlled and

the electron flow over a closed path,
the result is electric circuit
Electric Circuit
 Electric Circuit

1. Ampere (A)
Electric current are measured in
Ampere (A). The ampere measures
the number of electron flowing in the
electric circuit
1A = 1C/s
 Electric Circuit

2. Volt (V)
Electric potential is
measured in volt (V)
Ampere vs. Voltage

Example – you could say that…

Amps measure how much water
comes out of a hose.
Volts measure how hard the water
comes out of a hose.
 OHM’s Law ()
Ohm’s Law states that the voltage
across the total circuit or any portion
of the current is equal to the current
times the resistance
 OHM’s Law ()
V= I X R
V (volt) = electric potential
I (electric current) = ampere
R (resistance) = Ohms

V
I R
 Resistance
• The opposition to the flow of an
electric current, producing heat.
• The greater the resistance, the less
current gets through.
• Good conductors have low
resistance.
• Measured in ohms.
 What Influences
Resistance?

• Material of wire – aluminum and copper have

low resistance
• Thickness – the thicker the wire the lower the
resistance
• Length – shorter wire has lower resistance
• Temperature – lower temperature has lower
resistance
What Influences
Resistance?
Example: If a current of 0.5 A flows
through a conductor that has a
resistance of 6. What is the voltage
across the conductor?
V= I x R
V= (0.5A) x (6)
V= 3V
 RESISTOR Inhibits flow of electron
BATTERY Provides electric potential
CAPACITOR Momentarily stored electric charge
AMMETER Measures electric current
VOLTAGE Measure electric potential
Turns circuits on/off by providing infinite
SWITCH resistance
Inc. & dec. voltage by fixed amount (AC
TRANSFORMER only)
RHEOSTAT Variable resistor
Allows electron to flow in only one
DIODE direction
Electronic switch ha can also amplify
TRANSISTOR signals
 Two basis kinds of
Electric Current

• Series Circuit
• Parallel Circuit
 1. Series circuit

Series Circuit: the

components are lined up
along one path. If the
circuit is broken, all
components turn off.
1. Series circuit
In a series circuit, all elements are
connected in a line along the same
conductor
 Rules for Series Circuit:
• The total resistance is equal to the sum of
the individual resistance
• The current through each circuit elements is
the same and is equal to the total circuit
current
• The sum of the voltage across each circuit is
equal to the total circuit voltage
Rules for Series Circuit:

VT = V1 + V2 + V3

I T = I1 = I 2 = I 3

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Example: A series circuit contains three resistance
elements having values of 8, 12 and 15. If the voltage is
voltage 110V. What is the total resistance? Current?
Voltage?
RT = 8 + 12 + 15 = 35
IT = 110/ 35 = 3.14 A
V1 = (3.14 A) (8) = 25.12 V
V2 = (3.14) (12) = 36.68 V
V3 = (3.14) (15) = 47.10 V
 2. Parallel circuit
• Parallel Circuit – there are
several branching paths to the
components. If the circuit is
broken at any one branch, only
the components on that branch
will turn off.
A parallel circuit contains elements that bridge conductors rather
than lie in
a line along a conductor.
 Rules for Parallel Circuit:
•The sum of the current through each circuit
element is equal to the total circuit current.
•The voltage across each circuit element is the
same and is equal to the total circuit voltage
•The total resistance is inversely proportional to
the sum of the reciprocals of each individual
resistance.
Rules for Parallel Circuit:
VT = V1 = V2 = V3

I T = I 1 + I 2 + I3

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT R1 R2 R3
Example: A parallel circuit contains three
resistance elements having values of 8, 12 and
15. If the voltage is voltage 110V. What is the
total resistance? Current? Voltage?
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RT 8 12 15
1 = 33
RT 120
RT = 120 = 3.6 
33
IT = VT / RT
IT = 110V / 3.6 
IT = 30.6 A
I1 = 110V / 8  = 13.8 A
I2 = 110V / 12  = 9.2 A
I3 = 110V / 15  = 7.3 A

VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = 110V
 There are 2 types of
currents:

1. Direct Current (DC)

•Electrons flowing in one direction along the conductor
•Where electrons flow in the same direction in a wire.
2. Alternating Current (AC)
•Current in which electrons oscillates back and forth
•electrons flow in different directions in a wire
 ELECTRIC POWER
• Measured in Watts (W)
• One watt is equal to 1A of current flowing
through an electric potential of 1V

•P = I x V
V
•P = I x R
2
I R
Example: The overall resistance of a mobile x-ray unit
is 10. When plugged into a 110V receptacle. How many
current does it draw? And many powers are consumed?
I= V/R
I= 110/ 10
I= 11 A
P= I x V
P= (11A) (110V)
P= 1210 W
OR:
P= I2 x R
P= (11A) 2 x (10)
P= 1210 W
 MAGNETISM

Magnetism is the properties

and interactions of
magnets
 HISTORY
• Around 100 BC shepherds and dairy
farmers of village of Magnesia (what is
now Western Turkey) discovered
magnetite.
• Magnetite is a magnetic oxide of iron
(Fe3 O4)
• This rod like stone would rotate back and
forth when suspended by a string. When
it came to rest on the string, it
supposedly pointed the way to water. It is
called a lodestone or leading stone.
• Magnetite was also used as a compass by
ancient people
• From any spot on Earth, magnetite pointed
toward the North Pole and following the
lodestone north would lead to water.
•The word magnetism comes from
the name of that amount village
Magnesia
 INTRODUCTION TO
MAGNETISM
• In a magnet we have magnetic poles –
the north and the south pole.
A North seeking pole is called the North
Pole.
A South seeking pole is called the South
Pole.
•Any charged particle in motion
creates a magnetic field.
• Magnets have two ends or poles, called north and south
poles. At the poles of a magnet, the magnetic field lines
are closer together.
 Magnetic Fields:
• A magnet that is moved in space near a second
magnet experiences a magnetic field.
• A magnetic field can be represented by field lines.
• The strength of the magnetic field is greater where
the lines are closer together and weaker where
they are farther apart.
• The earth's magnetic field.
Note that the magnetic north
pole and the geographic North
Pole are not in the same place.
Note also that the magnetic
north pole acts as if the south
pole of a huge bar magnet
were inside the earth. You
know that it must be a
magnetic south pole since the
north end of a magnetic
compass is attracted to it and
opposite poles attract.
• What are magnetic domains?
Magnetic substances like iron, cobalt, and nickel
are composed of small areas where the groups of
atoms are aligned like the poles of a magnet.
These regions are called domains. All of the
domains of a magnetic substance tend to align
themselves in the same direction when placed in a
magnetic field. These domains are typically
composed of billions of atoms.
Electricity and Magnetism – how are they
related?
“When an electric current passes through a
wire a magnetic field is formed”. The
direction of the magnetic field depends on
the direction of the current in the wire
 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETS
Magnets are classified according to the origin of their
magnetic property.

Types of magnets:
1. Naturally Occurring Magnets
2. Permanent Magnets
3. Electromagnets
1. Naturally Occurring
Magnets

•Earth
•Lodestone/ Leading stone/
magnetite
2. Permanent Magnets
• Compass
• Permanent magnets are typically produced by
charging them in the field of an electromagnet
• The magnetic property of a magnet can be
destroyed by heating it or even by hitting it with a
hammer.
• The individual magnetic domains are jarred from
their alignment and thus become randomly
aligned again.
3. Electromagnets

• Consist of wire wrapped around an iron core.

• When an electric current is conducted through the
wire, a magnetic field is created
• The intensity of magnetic field is proportional to
the electric current.
3. Electromagnets
• When an electric current is passed through a coil of wire
(solenoid) wrapped around a metal core, a very strong
magnetic field is produced. This is called an
electromagnet.
All matter can be classified according to the manner in
which it interacts with an external magnetic field.

1. Diamagnetic
• cannot be magnetized
• non magnetic
• they cannot be artificially magnetized and
they are not attracted to a magnet
Ex: wood, glass, plastic
2. Ferromagnetic
• can be easily magnetized
• strongly attracted by a magnet and can be
usually be permanently magnetized by
exposure to a magnetic field

Ex: iron, aluminum, nickel, cobalt (ALNICO),

rare earth ceramics
3. Paramagnetic

• Materials lie somewhere between ferromagnetic and

non-magnetic. they are slightly attracted to a
magnetic field

Ex: gadolinium
 MAGNETIC LAWS:
1. Magnetic Dipoles
Every magnet no matter how small has
two poles, north pole and south pole,
equivalent to positive and negative
electrostatic charges
 MAGNETIC LAWS:
2. Attraction and Repulsion
Just as with electrostatic charges, like
magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic
poles attract.
 MAGNETIC LAWS:
3. Magnetic Induction
• A ferromagnetic material can be made magnetic by being
placed in the magnetic field lines of a magnet.
• Imaginary magnetic field lines are called magnetic lines of
induction and the density of the lines is proportional to the
intensity of the magnetic field
 MAGNETIC LAWS:
4. Magnetic Force or Maxwell Field Theory (Gauss
Law)
Magnetic force is proportional to the product of
the magnetic pole strength divided by the square
of the distance between them

F= k P1 x P2
d2
If the distance between two bar magnets is halved,
the magnetic force will be increased by four times
• The SI unit of magnetic field strength is
the Tesla or Gauss
• 1 Tesla= 10, 000 Gauss
• The Earth’s magnetic field is proximately
50T at the equator and 100T at the
poles
ELECTROMAGNETISM
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
• Electricity and magnetism are different aspects of
same electromagnetic forces
• Electromagnetic force is one of the fundamental
forces of nature
• The development of the battery led to an increased
understanding of Electromagnetic phenomena
 BATTERY
• discovered by Italian anatomist, Alessandro Volta, 1700s
• Using zinc and copper plates, he succeeded in producing
a feeble electric current. To increase the current, he
stacked the copper-zinc plates similar to a Dagwood
sandwich to form what was called the Voltaic pile, a
precursor of the modern battery.
 BATTERY

• Each zinc-copper sandwich is called a cell of

a battery
• Modern dry cells use a carbon rod as the
positive electrode surrounded by an
electrolytic paste housed in a negative zinc
cylindrical can.
 BATTERY
• The battery is an example of Electromotive Force
(EMF)
• Any device that converts some form of energy into
electric energy is said to be a source of EMF or
stored electric energy
• EMF has units of joules per coulomb or volts
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

• 1820- Hans Oersted, Danish physicist, fashioned a long,

straight wire supported near a free-rotating magnetic
compass.
• With no current flowing through the wire, the magnetic
compass pointed north as one would expect.
• When a current was passed through the wire, however, the
compass needle swung to point straight at the wire.
ELECTRICITY AND
MAGNETISM
• Oersted’s experiment demonstrated that
electricity can be used to generate magnetic
fields.
• This was evidence of a direct link between
electric and magnetic phenomena.
• Any charge in motion induces a magnetic
field.

• A charge at rest produces no magnetic field.

Thus electrons flowing through a wire
produce a magnetic field around the wire
• The direction of the magnetic field lines can be
determined by using what is called RIGHT-HAND RULE.
• Imagine gripping the wire with the right hand. If the thumb
is pointed in the direction of the current flow, the fingers of
your hand will then curl in the direction of the magnetic
lines. These same rules apply if the current is flowing in a
circular loop.
Right hand rule:
• A coil of wire is called a SOLENOID
• An ELECTROMAGNET is a ferromagnetic materials
wrapped in a coil of wire.
• The magnetic field produced by an electromagnet is the
same as that produced by a bar magnet.
• The advantage of the electromagnet is that its magnetic
field can be adjusted or turned on and off simply by
varying the current flow through its coil of wire
LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
First law: FARADAY’S LAW
Michael Faraday’s law says that an
electric current will be induced to flow
in a circuit if some part of that circuit is
in a changing magnetic field.
LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

First law: FARADAY’S LAW

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
First law: FARADAY’S LAW
Faraday’s concluded that an electric current
cannot be induced in a circuit merely by the
presence of a magnetic field. To induce a
flow of current using a magnetic field, the
magnetic field cannot be constant but must
be changing.
LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Second law: LENZ’ LAW

1834, a Russian scientist, Heinrich Lenz
expanded on Faraday’s work. He
established the principle for
determining the direction induced
current flow.
Second law: LENZ’ LAW

Heinrich Lenz’ law states that induced current flows in a

direction such that it opposes the action that induces it.
There are 2 basic types of induction (production of
electricity in the magnetic field):

1. Self- induction
The induction of an opposing EMF in
a single coil by its own changing
magnetic field.
There are 2 basic types of induction (production of
electricity in the magnetic field):

1. Self- induction
There are 2 basic types of induction (production of
electricity in the magnetic field):

2. Mutual-induction
•The process of inducing a current
flow through a secondary coil
passing a varying current through
the primary coil.
There are 2 basic types of induction (production of
electricity in the magnetic field):

2. Mutual-induction
ELECTROMECHANICAL AND
ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1. Electric generator
2. Electric motor
3. Transformer
4. Rectifier
ELECTROMECHANICAL AND
ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1. Electric generator
• In a electric generator a coil of wire is
placed in a strong magnetic field between
two poles of a magnet
• Converts mechanical to electrical energy
ELECTROMECHANICAL AND ELECTRONIC
DEVICES

2. Electric motor
• In an electric motor the electric energy is
supplied to the current loop to produce a
mechanical motion, that is the rotation of
the loop in the magnetic field
• Converts electrical to mechanical energy
ELECTROMECHANICAL AND
ELECTRONIC DEVICES

3. Transformer
• Electric potential and electric and electric current
are changed to higher or lower intensities.
• Transformer operates on the principle of mutual
induction, it will only operates with a changing
electric current (AC)
Transformer Law for Voltage:

VS = N S
VP N P
Transformer Law for Current:

IS = NP
IP NS
Transformer Law for Voltage and Current:

IS = VP
IP VS
There are 125 turns on the primary side of a
transformer and 90, 000 turns on the
secondary side. If 110V AC is supplied to
the primary winding, what will be the voltage
induced in the secondary winding?

125X = 9,900,000 X= 79, 200V

125 125 or X= 79.2 kV
Np = 125
Ns= 90,000
Vp= 110
Vs= x

Vs = Ns
Vp Np
X = 90,000
110 125

125X = 9,900,000 X= 79, 200V

125 125 or X= 79.2 kV
 Types of transformers:

1. Closed-Core Transformer
• The closed core transformer is a square
doughnut of magnetic material
• The closed-core transformer is not a single piece
but rather is a built-up slab of laminated layers of
iron.
• This layering helps reduce energy losses caused
by the heat built up by the changing magnetic
field in the transformer.
 Types of transformers:

1. Closed-Core Transformer
 Types of transformers:

2. Autotransformer
• An autotransformer consists of an iron core with only
one winding of wire.
• This single winding acts as both the primary and the
secondary winding.
• The transformer is based on the self induction rather
than the mutual induction.
• The autotransformer is not suitable for the use as the
high-voltage transformer in an x-ray machine
 Types of transformers:

2. Autotransformer
 Types of transformers:

3. Shell-type transformer
• A shell-type transformer traps even more of the
magnetic field of the primary winding and is thus a
more efficient transformer than closed-core
transformer.
• This type of transformer used in modern x-ray
equipment.
 Types of transformers:

3. Shell-type transformer
ELECTROMECHANICAL AND
ELECTRONIC DEVICES

4. Rectifier
• Changes AC to DC
• Types of rectifiers:
1. Vacuum-Tube rectifiers
Ex: X-ray tube (cathode & anode)
2. Solid-state Rectifiers
N-type
P- type
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Photon
• Are known as electromagnetic energy
• is the smallest quantity of any type of electromagnetic
radiation
• Small bundle of energy, sometimes called quantum
• Ex: x-ray and light energy
Properties of photons:

•frequency
•wavelength
•velocity
•amplitude
•Electromag
netic
radiation
James
Clerk
Maxwell
 Velocity

• photons are energy disturbance moving through

space at the speed of light (c)
• The velocity of EM photons in British units is 186,
400 miles/sec or the speed of light (c)
• 186, 000 miles per sec or 186, 400 miles per sec
• c= 3x108 meter/sec
 Amplitude
• Is one-half the range from crest to valley over
which the sine wave varies.
• Although photons have no mass and therefore no
identifiable form, they do have electric and
magnetic fields that are continuously moving in
sinusoidal fashion or sine wave.
 Frequency (f)
• The rate of rise and fall of a sine wave is called
frequency. It is usually identified as oscillations
per second or cycle per second. The unit of
measurement is the Hertz (Hz).
• 1Hz = 1 cycle/ sec.
 Wavelength ( or lambda)
• the distance from one crest to another crest; from
one valley to another valley; or from any point on
the sine wave to the next corresponding point is the
wavelength
• frequency and wavelength is inversely proportional
 v
f 

V= velocity of light (c)

f= frequency
= wavelength
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW

• the intensity of light is inversely proportional to the

square of the distance of the object from the
source
I1 = ( d2) 2
I2 (d1)2
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW
• If the source of radiation is not a point but rather a line,
such as fluorescent lamp, the inverse square law does not
hold at distance close to the source
• At great distance from the source, the inverse square law
can be applied.
• As a rule, the inverse square law can be applied to
distance greater than seven times the longest dimension
of the source.
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW
The intensity of x-ray beam is 400mR at 36 inches.
What will the intensity be at 72 inches?
I1 = 400mR
d1= 36 in
I2= x
d2= 72 in
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW
I1 = ( d2)2
I2 (d1)2
400mR = (72in) 2
x (36in) 2
5184 x = 518400
5184 5184

x= 100mR
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW

• When the distance from the source is

doubled, the intensity of radiation is
reduced by one forth, and conversely
when the distance is halved, the intensity
is increased by a factor of four.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
• Continuum of electromagnetic energy
• Electromagnetic spectrum has three
regions of importance to radiography:
• visible light
• radiofrequency (RF)
• x-radiation (ionizing radiation)
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
•The only difference among photons
of these various portions of EM
spectrum is in the FREQUENCY and
WAVELENGTH