• Limitations:

TOPIC # 1: ATOMS o Couldn’t explain why electrons didn’t

THE ATOMIC THEORY collapse into the positive sphere
o Failed to predict the distribution and
arrangement of electrons
o Lacked explanation for the nucleus
and its positive charge

Ernest Rutherford
• Nuclear Model
• First model to propose a central, massive
nucleus
• Explained the behavior of positively charged
alpha particles in the gold foil experiment
• Laid the groundwork for understanding
John Dalton atomic structure and radioactivity
• Solid Sphere Model
• Shifted from philosophical ideas to scientific
theory
• First atomic model based on experimental
evidence and quantitative observations
• Paved the way for the development of
modern atomic theories
• Limitations:
o Couldn’t explain differences in
atomic mass within an element • Limitations
(isotopes) o Didn't explain the stability of the
o Didn’t account for the presence of nucleus against electrostatic repulsion
subatomic particles like protons, o Lacked details about electron orbits
neutrons, and electrons and energy levels
o Couldn’t explain the behavior of o Didn't incorporate the principles of
atoms in chemical reactions quantum mechanics

J.J Thomson Niels Bohr

• Plum-Pudding Model • Planetary Model
• Discovered electrons as distinct particles • Discovered electrons as distinct particles
• Shifted understanding from indivisible atom • Shifted understanding from indivisible atom
to subatomic particles to subatomic particles
• Paved the way for further exploration of • Paved the way for further exploration of
atomic structure atomic structure
• Cathode Ray- Experiment • Limitations
o Limited to explaining the hydrogen
atom
o Couldn't account for the behavior of
multi-electron atoms
o Didn't incorporate the wave-like
nature of electrons

Erwin Schrödinger
• Quantum Mechanical Model
 • Quantum mechanics provides a • A measure of the likelihood (probability) that a
comprehensive understanding of electron particle will be found at a particular location in
behavior space. In this case, where you would likely find
• Schrödinger's model successfully explains an electron in the electron cloud.
multi-electron atoms
• Quantum mechanics is the foundation of
modern atomic theory
• Limitations
o Mathematical complexity of the
model
o Requires advanced mathematics to
calculate electron probabilities
Node is referred to as a point, where the probability of
o Doesn't provide a simple visual finding the electron is zero
representation of atomic structure Shape of Orbitals

De Broglie’s Wavelength
• Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles could
be treated as matter waves with a wavelength,
given by the following equation

Sample problem: Electron spin: the Stern-Gerlach experiment

1. Find the wavelength of an electron moving with
a speed of ms-1.
Given:
Velocity of the electron, v =2×106 ms-1
Mass of electron, m =9.1×10-31 Kg
Planck’s Constant, h = 6.62607015×10−34 Js
The de-Broglie wavelength is given by λ = h/mv
= 6.62607015×10−34 /(2×106)(9.1×10-31 )
λ = 0.364×109m
• In 1922, German physicists Otto Stern and
Walther Gerlach hypothesized that electrons
behaved as tiny bar magnets, each with a north
and south pole. To test this theory, they fired a
beam of silver atoms between the poles of a
permanent magnet with a stronger north pole
than south pole.

• An atomic orbital is defined as the region

within an atom that encloses where the
electron is likely to be 90% of the time.
• The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states
that we can't know both the energy and
position of an electron. Therefore, as we learn
more about the electron's position, we know Energy Levels
less about its energy, and vice versa
• Electrons have an intrinsic property called • Energy levels (also called electron shells) are
spin, and an electron can have one of two fixed distancees from the nucleus of an atom
possible spin values: spin-up or spin-down. where electrons may be found.
• Any two electrons occupying the same orbital • Electrons can occupy one energy level or
must have opposite spins. another but not the space between energy
levels.
Probability Density
 • The model in the Figure shows the first four
energy levels of an atom. Electrons in energy
level I (also called energy level K) have the
least amount of energy.
• As you go farther from the nucleus, electrons
at higher levels have more energy, and their
energy increases by a fixed, discrete amount.
• Electrons can jump from a lower to the next
higher energy level if they absorb this amount
of energy. Conversely, if electrons jump from
a higher to a lower energy level, they give off
energy, often in the form of light energy
Outermost Level
• Also known as “Valence Shell” part of an
atom
• Electrons in the outermost energy level of an
atom have a special significance. These
electrons are called valence electrons, and
they determine many of the properties of an
atom.
• An atom is most stable if its outermost energy
level contains as many electrons as it can
hold.
The ground state configuration is the lowest
energy, most stable arrangement. An excited
state configuration is a higher energy
arrangement (it requires energy input to create
an excited state).
Electronic configuration rules
• Aufbau Principle: lower energy orbitals fill
before higher energy orbitals.
• Hund's Rule: one electron goes into each until all
of them are half full before pairing up.
• Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons can
be identified by the same set of quantum
numbers (i.e. must have. different spins)
PREDICTING THE LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF
ELECTRONS IN THE ENERGY LEVELS
The quantum numbers
• The set of numbers used to describe the position
and energy of the electron in an atom are called
quantum numbers.
• There are four quantum numbers, namely,
principal, azimuthal, magnetic and spin quantum
numbers. The values of the conserved quantities
of a quantum system are given by quantum
numbers.
The principal quantum number
The principal quantum number, n, designates the
principal electron shell. Because n describes the most
probable distance of the electrons from the nucleus, the
larger the number n is, the farther the electron is from
the nucleus, the larger the size of the orbital, and the
larger the atom is.
The Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number
• The orbital angular momentum quantum
number l determines the shape of an orbital,
and therefore the angular distribution.
• The number of angular nodes is equal to the
value of the angular momentum quantum
number l.
• Each value of l indicates a specific s, p, d, f
subshell (each unique in shape.)
• The value of l is dependent on the principal
quantum number n
The Magnetic Quantum Number
• The magnetic quantum number ml determines
the number of orbitals and their orientation
within a subshell.
• Consequently, its value depends on the orbital
angular momentum quantum number l.
• Given a certain l, ml is an interval ranging from –
l– to +l+, so it can be zero, a negative integer, or
a positive integer.
The Electron Spin Quantum Number
• Unlike n, l, and ml, the electron spin quantum
number ms does not depend on another
quantum number. It designates the direction
of the electron spin and may have a spin of
 +1/2, represented by↑, or –1/2, represented
by ↓.
• This means that when m is positive the
electron has an upward spin, which can be
referred to as "spin up." When it is negative,
the electron has a downward spin, so it is
"spin down."
• The significance of the electron spin quantum
number is its determination of an atom's
ability to generate a magnetic field or not
RESTRICTIONS
• Pauli Exclusion Principle- a set of quantum
numbers is specific to a certain electron.
• Hund's Rule-Orbitals may have identical energy
levels when they are of the same principal shell.
These orbitals are called degenerate, or "equal
energy." According to Hund's Rule, electrons fill
orbitals one at a time.
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle- According to
the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, we cannot
precisely measure the momentum and position
of an electron at the same time. As the
momentum of the electron is more and more
certain, the position of the electron becomes less
certain, and vice versa. This helps explain integral
quantum numbers and why n=2.5 cannot exist as
a principal quantum number.