Properties of

Covalent and Ionic

Compound
Why study the Ionic and
Covalent Compounds
properties?
 Review
Chemical bonding
Concept of covalent and
ionic compounds
IONIC COMPOUND An ionic compound is a chemical
compound composed of ions held
together by electrostatic forces
termed ionic bonding. The
compound is neutral overall, but
consists of positively charged
ions called cations and negatively
charged ions called anions.
 The figure below shows just a few examples of the color and brilliance of naturally occurring ionic
crystals. The regular and orderly arrangement of ions in the crystal lattice is responsible for the various
shapes of these crystals, while transition metal ions give rise to the colors.

Figure 3.6.1: In nature, the ordered arrangement of ionic solids gives rise to beautiful crystals. (A) Amethyst - a form of quartz, SiO2, whose
purple color comes from iron ions. (B) Cinnabar - the primary ore of mercury is mercury (II) sulfide, HgS (C) Azurite - a copper mineral,
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2. (D) Vanadinite - the primary ore of vanadium, Pb3(VO4)3Cl.
Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
Melting Points Because of the many simultaneous
attractions between cations and anions
that occur, ionic crystal lattices are
very strong. The process of melting an
ionic compound requires the addition
of large amounts of energy in order
to break all of the ionic bonds in the
crystal. For example, sodium chloride
has a melting temperature of about
80 degrees celsius.
Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds
Shattering
are generally hard, but brittle. Why? It takes a
large amount of mechanical force, such as
striking a crystal with a hammer, to force one
layer of ions to shift relative to its neighbor.
However, when that happens, it brings ions of
the same charge next to each other. The
repulsive forces between like-charged ions
Figure 3.6.2: (A) The sodium chloride crystal is shown in two
cause the crystal to shatter. When an ionic
dimensions. (B) When struck by a hammer, the negatively-charged
chloride ions are forced near each other and the repulsive force
crystal breaks, it tends to do so along smooth
causes the crystal to shatter.
planes because of the regular arrangement of
the ions.
Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
Conductivity
Figure 3.6.3: (A) Distilled water does not conduct electricity. (B) A
solid ionic compound also does not conduct. (C) A water solution
of an ionic compound conducts electricity well.
In the first beaker, distilled water does not conduct a
current because water is a molecular compound. In the
second beaker, solid sodium chloride also does not conduct a
current. Despite being ionic and thus composed of charged
particles, the solid crystal lattice does not allow the ions to
move between the electrodes. Mobile charged particles are
required for the circuit to be complete and the light bulb to
light up. In the third beaker, the NaCl has been dissolved into
the distilled water. Now the crystal lattice has been broken
apart and the individual positive and negative ions can move.
Cations move to one electrode, while anions move to the
other, allowing electricity to flow (see figure below). Melting
an ionic compound also frees the ions to conduct a current.
Ionic compounds conduct an electric current when melted or
dissolved in water.
 Key Takeaways

Ionic compounds have high melting points.

Ionic compounds are hard and brittle.
Ionic compounds dissociate into ions when dissolved in
water.
Solutions of ionic compounds and melted ionic
compounds conduct electricity, but solid materials do
not.
An ionic compound can be identified by its chemical
formula: metal + nonmetal or polyatomic ions.
COVALENT COMPOUNDS
A covalent bond is a chemical bond
that involves the sharing of electrons
to form electron pairs between atoms.
These electron pairs are known as
shared pairs or bonding pairs. The
stable balance of attractive and
repulsive forces between atoms, when
they share electrons, is known as
covalent bonding
Characteristics of Covalent
compounds
Bond length Bond length is the
separation distance
between two nuclei forming
a covalent bond. The bond
length is usually measured
in meters or picometers (1
pm = 1x10^-12 m).
Characteristics of Covalent
compounds
Bond Energy
Bond energy is defined as
the energy required to break
a particular bond in a
molecule in the gas phase,
expressed in kilojoules per
mole of bonds (kJ/mol).
Characteristics of Covalent
compounds
Bond Energy
Bond energy is defined as
the energy required to break
a particular bond in a
molecule in the gas phase,
expressed in kilojoules per
mole of bonds (kJ/mol).
 Physical properties of covalent compounds

Covalent compounds form discrete molecules that can exist

independently from each other, in contrast to the crystal
structure of ionic compounds in which formula units cannot
exist individually but only as a part of a lattice of ions.
Therefore, the physical properties of covalent molecules
depend heavily on the nature of their interaction with other
molecules (intermolecular forces). Depending on the nature of
these intermolecular interactions, covalent compounds may
exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas at room temperature and
normal atmospheric pressure.
Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are
attractive forces that exist
between molecules. These
forces play a crucial role in
determining the physical
and chemical properties of
substances.
Intermolecular forces Definition: These are the
London Dispersion Forces (Van der Waals weakest intermolecular forces
Forces): and occur between all
molecules, whether polar or
nonpolar. They result from
temporary fluctuations in
electron distribution, creating
temporary dipoles.
Example: Noble gases (e.g.,
helium, neon), nonpolar
Polarization occurs when an electric field distorts the negative
cloud of electrons around positive atomic nuclei in a direction molecules (e.g., methane,
diatomic hydrogen).
opposite the field.

The London dispersion force is the weakest intermolecular force..

Intermolecular forces
Dipole-Dipole Interactions Definition: Dipole-dipole
interactions occur between
polar molecules, where the
positive end of one molecule
is attracted to the negative
end of another molecule.
Example: Hydrogen fluoride
(HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl).
Intermolecular forces
Definition: A specific type of
Hydrogen Bonding
dipole-dipole interaction
where hydrogen is bonded to
a highly electronegative atom
(N, O, or F), creating a strong
electrostatic attraction.
Example: Water (H₂O),
ammonia (NH₃), hydrogen
Hydrogen bonds are caused by highly electronegative atoms. fluoride (HF).
They only occur between hydrogen and oxygen, fluorine or
nitrogen, and are the strongest intermolecular force.
Intermolecular forces Definition: These occur
Ion-Dipole Interactions: between an ion and the
partial charge on the end of a
polar molecule. It is stronger
than dipole-dipole
interactions.
Example: The interaction
between a sodium ion (Na⁺)
and water molecules in a
solution.
 Key Takeaways

Covalent bonds between different atoms have different

bond lengths and bond energies.
The stronger the covalent bond, the higher its bond energy
and the shorter its bond distance
As a general rule, covalent compounds have lower melting
and boiling points compared to ionic compounds with
similar molecular mass.
The physical properties of covalent molecules depend
heavily on the nature of their interaction with other
molecules
 Formative #__
Instructions: Determine whether each statement describes properties of ionic
compounds (I), covalent compounds (C), or both (B).
1. High Melting and Boiling Points
2. Formed by the Sharing of Electrons
3. Soluble in Water
4. Exist as Molecules
5. Conduct Electricity in Molten State
6. Low Melting and Boiling Points
7. Electronegativity Difference Involved in Bonding
8. Hard and Brittle
9. Formed Between a Metal and a Nonmetal
10. Commonly Exist as Network Structures
JOURNAL
ENTRY # 4
DEADLINE: NEXT YEAR’S
SUMMATIVE III

Differentiate Ionic Compounds and

Covalent Compounds based on their
Properties. You may draw and add
printed pictures to further illustrate
What is METALS
and IONS?
 The Periodic Table

One element included here, hydrogen, is rarely classified as a metal. On earth, hydrogen is a gas, and it is usually
classified as a non-metal, like oxygen and nitrogen. However, at very low temperatures and very high pressures, hydrogen
is a solid, and under the right conditions it is expected to behave more like a metal. It is thought that gas giants, such as
Jupiter and Saturn in our solar system, may have metallic hydrogen cores.
The properties of metal
Metallic elements are not generally found as
single atoms. Instead, the atoms in an element
such as iron cluster together to make a
larger structure.
The materials formed in this way have some
similar properties.
Metals are shiny (Luster)
Metals are malleable; they can be bent and
formed into different shapes (at least
when heated).
Metals are good conductors of electricity.
X-ray diffraction of metal
X-ray diffraction can reveal the atomic-level
structures of highly ordered materials such as
metals.

A pile of atoms versus an ordered array of atoms. Left: a cartoon of a pile of atoms. Right: a cartoon of
a square rectangle of atoms arranged in an orderly array.
 Malleability of metals
If you take a nice, soft metal such as copper, after annealing it in a
fire or oven, it can be bent and shaped easily. With copper, this can
be done even after the metal has cooled to room temperature. When
you bend the copper, you are actually causing layers of atoms to
slide over each other, until you stop bending and they come to rest in
a new location.
 Malleability of metals
If you have ever done this, you'll know that the more you work with
the copper, the harder it is to bend. That's because while you are
sliding layers of atoms back and forth, occasionally an atom (or an
entire row of atoms) slips out of place. It is no longer part of a
smooth layer, and so other atoms can't slide past it as easily. This
situation is called a defect. Once there are enough defects in the
metal, it is impossible to bend the material anymore.

Metal atoms are found in organized layers.

Because these layers can roll over each other, metals can be worked into different
shapes.
 Question 1
An alloy is a mixture of two metals. Steel is
an alloy of iron with any of a number of
other elements, such as chromium or
vanadium. Alloys are often harder than
metals composed of a pure element. Show
how alloying introduces a defect into the
metal, and how that makes the metal
stronger.
 Electron Sea
Many of the atoms in a metallic material are present as cations. But where did their lost
electrons go? Well, those electrons are still in the material, moving between the iron
atoms and cations. In a piece of iron, the attraction between the iron cations and the freely
moving electrons helps hold the metal together. This way of thinking about metals is
sometimes called the "electron sea" model of bonding.

Metal ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons.

Delocalized electrons are not restricted to one atom or another; they are distributed across several atoms in the solid.
The shininess of metals
(Luster)
The shininess of metals is also attributed to the electron-sea aspect of metallic bonding.
Collisions between incoming photons and the "free" electrons at the surface of a metal
cause the photons to bounce off the surface. The reddish color of copper results from a
limit on the wavelengths of visible light that bounce off the metal.
 IONS
Some atoms have nearly eight electrons in their valence shell and
can gain additional valence electrons until they have an octet. When
these atoms gain electrons, they acquire a negative charge because
they now possess more electrons than protons. Negatively charged
ions are called anions. Most nonmetals become anions when they
make ionic compounds.

The names for positive and negative ions

are pronounced CAT-eye-ons (cations)
and ANN-eye-ons (anions), respectively.
 Electron Transfer
We can use electronic configurations to illustrate the
electron transfer process between sodium atoms and
chlorine atoms
 Electron Transfer
The sodium ion, Na+, has the electron configuration with an
octet of electrons from the second principal energy level. It is
now the same as that of the noble gas neon. The term
isoelectronic refers to an atom and an ion of a different atom
(or two different ions) that have the same electron
configuration. The sodium ion is isoelectronic with the neon
atom. The equation below illustrates this process.
Electron Transfer
 Electron Transfer

Only one more electron is needed to achieve an octet in chlorine’s valence shell.
When a chlorine atom gains an electron, its outermost principal energy level achieves
an octet. In this case, the ion has the same outermost shell as the original atom, but
now that shell has eight electrons in it. Once again, the octet rule has been satisfied.
The resulting anion, Cl−, is called the chloride ion; note the slight change in the suffix
(-ide instead of -ine) to create the name of this anion. This process is illustrated
below. (In table salt, this electron comes from the sodium atom.)
 Electron Transfer

The number of electrons lost by the sodium atom (one)

equals the number of electrons gained by the chlorine
atom (one), so the compound is electrically neutral.
Electron Transfer
 Lewis Dot Electron Structure

Notice that in this example there are two bromide ions (1– charge) needed for every one
magnesium ion (2+ charge) in order for the overall charge of the compound to equal zero.
This is called charge balance. The number of each type of ion is indicated in the formula
by the subscript.
Lewis Dot Electron Structure
 PETA# 3 : J O U R N A L
ENTRY # 5
Choose one metal and highlight
its properties and application
in the industry

PETA# 4 : J O U R N A L
ENTRY # 6
IMPORTANCE OF IONS IN OUR BODY,

Deadline: Next year’s summative III