9

Ionic and Covalent

Bonding

The shape of snowflakes results from

bonding (and intermolecular) forces
in H2O.

Contents and Concepts

Ionic Bonds Molten salts and aqueous solutions of salts are
9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds electrically conducting. This conductivity results
9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions from the motion of ions in the liquids. This
suggests the possibility that ions exist in certain
9.3 Ionic Radii
solids, held together by the attraction of ions of
opposite charge.

Covalent Bonds Not all bonds can be ionic. Hydrogen, H2, is a

9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds clear example, in which there is a strong bond
9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity between two like atoms. The bonding in the
hydrogen molecule is covalent. A covalent bond
9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas
forms between atoms by the sharing of a pair of
9.7 Delocalized Bonding: Resonance
electrons.
9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas
9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order
9.11 Bond Energy

328
 9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds 329

T
he properties of a substance, such as sodium chloride (Figure 9.1), are
determined in part by the chemical bonds that hold the atoms
together. A chemical bond is a strong attractive force that exists between
certain atoms in a substance. In Chapter 2 we described how sodium (a
silvery metal) reacts with chlorine (a pale greenish yellow gas) to produce
sodium chloride (table salt, a white solid). The substances in this reaction are
quite different, as are their chemical bonds. Sodium chloride, NaCl, consists
of Na and Cl ions held in a regular arrangement, or crystal, by ionic bonds.
Ionic bonding results from the attractive force of oppositely charged ions.
A second kind of chemical bond is a covalent bond. In a covalent bond,
two atoms share valence electrons (outer-shell electrons), which are attracted
to the positively charged cores of both atoms, thus linking them. For exam-
ple, chlorine gas consists of Cl2 molecules. You would not expect the two
Cl atoms in each Cl2 molecule to acquire the opposite charges required for FIGURE 9.1 ▲
ionic bonding. Rather, a covalent bond holds the two atoms together. This is Sodium chloride crystals
Natural crystals of sodium chloride mineral
consistent with the equal sharing of electrons that you would expect between
(halite).
identical atoms. In most molecules, the atoms are linked by covalent bonds.
Metallic bonding, seen in sodium and other metals, represents
another important type of bonding. A crystal of sodium metal consists of a regular arrange-
ment of sodium atoms. The valence electrons of these atoms move throughout the crystal,
attracted to the positive cores of all Na ions. This attraction holds the crystal together.
What determines the type of bonding in each substance? How do you
describe the bonding in various substances? In this chapter we will look at some
simple, useful concepts of bonding that can help us answer
■ See pages 364–365 for these questions. We will be concerned with ionic and covalent
the Media Summary. bonds in particular.

Ionic Bonds
The first explanation of chemical bonding was suggested by the properties of salts,
substances now known to be ionic. Salts are generally crystalline solids that melt at
high temperatures. Sodium chloride, for example, melts at 801C. A molten salt (the
liquid after melting) conducts an electric current. A salt dissolved in water gives a
solution that also conducts an electric current. The electrical conductivity of the
molten salt and the salt solution results from the motion of ions in the liquids. This
suggests the possibility that ions exist in certain solids, held together by the attrac-
tion of opposite charges.

9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds

An ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between
positive and negative ions. The bond forms between two atoms when one or more
electrons are transferred from the valence shell of one atom to the valence shell of
the other. The atom that loses electrons becomes a cation (positive ion), and the
atom that gains electrons becomes an anion (negative ion). Any given ion tends to
attract as many neighboring ions of opposite charge as possible. When large num-
bers of ions gather together, they form an ionic solid. The solid normally has a reg-
ular, crystalline structure that allows for the maximum attraction of ions, given their
particular sizes.