PHA-044: Physical Pharmacy Lecture

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Name: ______________________________________________________ Class number: ______

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Lesson title: Solubility and Concentrations in Solutions Materials:

Pen, Scientific Calculator, Periodic
Lesson Objectives: Table of Elements, SAS
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the solubilities, properties, and composition of various References:
kinds of solutions. • Martin’s Physical Pharmacy
2. Calculate different expressions of concentration in solutions and Pharmaceutical
Sciences 7th ed (Sinko,
2016)
• Chemistry the Central
Science 12th ed (Brown et
al., 2012)
• General, Organic, and
Biological Chemistry 6th ed
(Stoker, 2013)

Productivity Tip:
Eat healthily! A healthy diet is your brain’s best friend. Great immune system and optimum health will keep
your energy levels high and make studying more productive.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW

Introduction (2 mins)

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances with each substance retaining its own
chemical identity. It is composed of one or more solutes dissolved in a solvent. The solute component is present
in lesser quantity than the solvent while the solvent component is present in the largest quantity. A concentration
for solution is the amount of solute present in a specified amount of solution. Many methods of expressing
concentration exist and may be expressed in many different units. The topic of this lesson is all about the types
of solutions and their different expressions in their concentrations. Solutions have a wide variety of uses in the
pharmaceutical industry. They are used vehicles for other products and excipients or additives for other
formulations. As you progress in this study, you can describe the different solubilities, properties, and
composition of various kinds of solutions. You will also learn how to compute solution concentrations in different
methods or units.

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Activity 1: What I Know Chart, Part 1 (3 mins)

Instructions: “In this chart, reflect on what you know now. Do not worry if you are sure or not sure of your
answers. This activity simply serves to get you started on thinking about our topic. Answer only the first column,
“What I know”. Leave the third column “What I learned” blank at this time.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

1. What are the components of
the solution?

2. Why each substance has

different solubilities?

3. How do we express the

concentrations in solutions?

B. MAIN LESSON

Activity 2: Content Notes (60 mins)

Instructions: Please take note, highlight, or outline some important and striking information.

SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY

The dissolution of a solid in a liquid is perhaps the most common example of solution formation. However,
it is also possible to form solutions in gases and solids as well as in liquids (see Table 1). The important types
of solution in pharmaceuticals are those gases in liquids, liquids in liquids, and solids in liquids. Some systems
in a solution, however, fall between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. There are three classifications
of dispersed or particulate systems in a solution and these are molecular dispersion, colloidal dispersion and
coarse dispersion. Molecular dispersion is also known as true solution and is defined as a mixture of two or
more components that form a homogeneous molecular dispersion or one-phase system. In a true solution, the
solute cannot be isolated from the solution by filtration because it has solute particle size about the same as that
of the solvent (less than 1 nm) so solvent and solute directly pass through the filter paper. Colloidal dispersion
or colloid represents system having a particle size (1 nm to 0.5 µm) intermediate between that of a true solution
and a coarse dispersion. It also consists of solute particles distribute throughout a solvent. However, the
distribution is not completely homogeneous owing to the size of the colloidal particles. Coarse dispersion or
suspension is a heterogeneous mixture that contains particles much larger than colloidal particles (>0.5 µm). In
over time, these particles may settle forming a second phase. For this lesson we will be focusing only molecular
dispersions or true solutions.

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Type Solute Solvent Example Appearance in

Solution
Gas in Gas Oxygen Nitrogen Air Gas
Liquid in Gas Water Oxygen Fog Gas
Solid in Gas Iodine Air Iodine vapor in air Gas
Gas in Liquid Carbon dioxide Water Carbonated water / Soda water Liquid
Liquid in Liquid Either Either Alcohol-water mixture Liquid
Solid in Liquid Sodium chloride Water Saline solution Liquid
Gas in Solid Hydrogen Palladium Hydrogen in palladium Solid
Liquid in Solid Mercury Silver Dental amalgam Solid
Solid in Solid Zinc Copper Brass Solid

Table 1. Most common types of solutions.

Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent under a given
set of conditions. It is defined in quantitative terms as the concentration of solute in a saturated solution at a
certain temperature, and in a qualitative way, it can be defined as the spontaneous interaction of two or more
substances to form a homogeneous molecular dispersion. Solubility is an intrinsic material property that can be
altered only by chemical modification of the molecule. In contrast to this, dissolution is an extrinsic material
property that can be influenced by various chemical, physical, or crystallographic means such as complexation,
particle size, surface properties, solid-state modification, and solubilization enhancing formulation strategies.

The thermodynamic solubility of a drug in a solvent is the maximum amount of the most stable crystalline
form that can remain in a solution in a given volume of the solvent at a given temperature and pressure under
equilibrium conditions. The equilibrium involves a balance of the energy of three interactions against each other:
(1) solvent with solvent, (2) solute with solute, and (3) solvent and solute. Thermodynamic equilibrium is achieved
when the overall lowest energy state is achieved. This means that only the equilibrium solubility reflects the
balance of forces between the solution and the most stable, lowest energy crystalline form of the solid. In practical
terms, this means one needs to be careful when evaluating a drug’s solubility.

SOLUBILITY EXPRESSIONS

The solubility of a drug may be expressed in a number of ways. The United States Pharmacopeia (USP)
describes the solubility of drugs as parts of solvent required for one part of solute. The USP describes solubility
using the seven groups listed in Table 2. Solubility of a drug can be expressed in term of concentration or
quantitative form such as percent concentration, molarity, molality, mole fraction, and normality. Specifying what
the composition of a solution involves specifying solute concentration. A concentration is the amount of solute
present in a specified amount of solution.

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Description Forms Parts of Solvent Required
(Solubility Definition) for One Part of Solute
Very soluble (VS) <1
Freely soluble (FS) From 1 to 10
Soluble From 10 to 30
Sparingly soluble (SPS) From 30 to 100
Slightly soluble (SS) From 100 to 1000
Very slightly soluble (VSS) From 1000 to 10,000
Practically insoluble (PI) >10,000

Table 2. Solubility Definition in the United States Pharmacopeia

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION

Percent concentration may be indicated three different ways; (1) percent by mass or weight (mass-mass
or weight-weight percent), (2) percent by volume (volume-volume percent), and mass-volume percent. Percent
by mass is the mass of solute in a solution divided by the total mass of solution, multiplied by 100 (to put the
value in terms of percentage) as shown in Formula 1. The solute and solution masses must be measured in the
same unit, which is usually grams. The mass of the solution is equal to the mass of the solute plus the mass of
the solvent (see Formula 2). A solution whose mass or weight percent concentration is 5.0% would contain 5.0
g of solute per 100.0 g of solution (5.0 g of solute and 95.0 g of solvent). Thus, percent by mass directly gives
the number of grams of solute in 100 g of solution. The percent-by-mass or weight concentration unit is often
abbreviated as %(m/m) or %(w/w). See Example 1 for calculation problem.

Formula 1. Percent by mass equation. Formula 2. Mass of solution equation.

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(m/m) or 8.3516 %(w/w)

The second type of percentage unit, percent by volume (volume-volume percent, which is abbreviated
%(v/v), is used as a concentration unit in situations where the solute and solvent are both liquids or both gases.
In these cases, it is more convenient to measure volumes than masses. Percent by volume is the volume of
solute in as solution divided by the total volume of solution, multiplied by 100 as shown in Formula 3. Solute and
solution volumes must be always be expressed in the same units when you use percent by volume. When the
numerical value of a concentration is expressed as a percent by volume, it directly gives the number of milliliters
of solute in 100 mL of a solution. Thus a 100-mL sample of a 5.0%(v/v) alcohol-in-water solution contains 5.0
mL of alcohol dissolved in enough water to give 100 mL of solution. Note that such a 5.0%(v/v) solution could
not be made by adding 5 mL of alcohol to 95 mL of water, because the volumes of different liquids are not usually
additive. Differences in the way molecules are packed, as well as differences in distances between molecules,
almost always result in the volume of the solution being less than the sum of the volumes of solute and solvent.
For example, the final volume resulting from the addition of 50.0 mL of ethyl alcohol to 50.0 mL of water is 96.5
mL of solution. Working problems involving percent by volume entails using the same procedures as those used
for problems involving percent by mass. See Example 2 for calculation problem.

Formula 3. Percent by volume equation.

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The third type of percentage unit in common use is mass-volume percent and it is abbreviated %(m/v) or
%(w/v). This unit, which is often encountered in clinical or and hospital setting, is particularly convenient to use
when you work with a solid solute, which is easily weighed, and a liquid solvent. Solutions of drugs for internal
and external use, intravenous, and intramuscular injectables, and reagent solutions for testing are usually labeled
in mass-volume percent. Mass-volume percent is the mass of solute in a solution (in grams) divided by the total
volume of solution (in milliliters), multiplied by 100 as shown in Formula 4. Note that in the definition of mass-
volume percent, specific mass and volume units are given. This is necessary because the units do not cancel,
as was the case with mass percent and volume percent. Mass-volume percent indicates the number of grams
of solute dissolved in each 100 mL of solution. Thus, a 2.3%(m/v) solution of any solute contains 2.3 g of solute
in each 100 mL of solution, and a 5.4%(m/v) solution contains 5.4 g of solute in each 100 mL of solution. See
Example 3 for calculation problem.

Formula 4. Mass-volume percent equation.

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or 3.0769 %(w/v)

Concentration expressions are often based on the number of moles of one or more components of the
solution. Molarity is the moles of solute in a solution divided by the liters of solution as shown in Formula 5. Note
the abbreviation for molarity is a capital M. A solution containing 1 mole of KBr in 1 L of solution has a molarity
of 1 and is said to be a 1 M (1 molar) solution. The molarity concentration unit is often used in laboratories where
chemical reactions are being studied. Because chemical reactions occur between molecules and atoms, use of
the mole – a unit that counts particles – is desirable. Equal volumes of two solutions of the same molarity contain
the same number of solute molecules. In order to find the molarity of a solution, the solution volume in liters and
the number of moles is knowing the number of grams of solute present and the solute’s molecular weight. The
number of moles can be calculated by using the equation shown in Formula 6. See Example 4 for calculation
problem.

Formula 5. Molarity (M) equation. Formula 6. Mole equation.

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Molality (symbolized as m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent in solution
as shown in Formula 7. Molality does not vary with temperature, whereas molarity is temperature dependent.
For this reason, molality is the preferred concentration unit for studies such as freezing point depression and
boiling point elevation, in which measurement of change in temperature is critical. Thus, if you form a solution
mixing 0.200 mol of NaOH (8.00 g) and 0.500 kg of water (500 g), the concentration of the solution is (0.200
mol) / (0.500 kg) = 0.400 m (that is, 0.400 molal) in NaOH. See Example 5 for calculation problem.

Formula 7. Molality equation.

Mole fraction is the number of moles of a component divided by the total number of moles of a solution
as shown in Formula 8. The symbol X is commonly used mole fraction, with a subscript to indicate the
component of interest. For example, the mole fraction of HCl in hydrochloric acid solution is represented as XHCl.
Thus, if a solution contains 1.00 mol of HCl (36.5 g) and 8.00 mol of water (144 g), the mole of fraction of HCl is
XHCl = (1.00 mol) / (1.00 mol + 8.00 mol) = 0.111. Mole fractions have no units because the units in the numerator
and denominator cancel. The sum of the mole fractions of all components of a solution must equal 1. Thus, in
the aqueous HCl solution, XH2O= 1.000 – 0.111 = 0.889. See Example 6 for calculation problem.

Formula 8. Mole fraction equation.

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Normality (symbolized as N) is a measure of concentration equal to the gram equivalent weight of solute
per liter of solution as show in Formula 9. Equivalent weight (Eq. wt.) refers to the mass of one equivalent, that
is the mass of a given substance which will be combined with or displace a fixed quantity of another substance
as shown in Formula 10. Gram equivalent weight (GEW) is the amount of a substance in grams numerically
equal to the equivalent weight as shown in Formula 11. It is used to measure the reactive capacity of a molecule.
Using the equation arrangements and derivations from Formula 9, 10 and 11, equation for determining normal
concentration (N) of a solution can be expressed in Formula 12.

Formula 9. Normality equation. Formula 10. Equivalent weight equation

Formula 11. Gram equivalent weight (GEW) equation. Formula 12. Another expression of Normality
equation.

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Equivalent or equivalence factor is also known as chemical factor and can be identified either of the
following; (a) number of protons performing unit in case of acids or number of replaceable H + or number of H+,
(b) number of OH- performing unit in case of bases or number of replaceable OH- or number of OH+, (c) number
of cations performing unit in case of salts or number of positive ions. Thus, the equivalence factor for NaOH is
1, HCl is 1 and NaCl is 1. For determining GEW for example, 1.00 g of NaOH having a molecular weight of 40
g/mol, the GEW is 0.025 (refer to Formula 11) because the equivalent is 1. Continuously for example, if we have
1 liter of solution then the normal concentration (N) will be 0.025 (refer to Formula 12). Normality can be
determined using the molar concentration (M) multiplied by its equivalent as shown in Formula 13. Thus, if we
have 1 M of NaOH solution then its normality is 1 N. See Example 7 for calculation problem.

N = M x Eq
Formula 13. Normality equation using Molarity.

DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF SOLUTIONS

Solutions can be categorized according to the solubility of the solute. A saturated solution is one in which
the solute in solution is in equilibrium with the solid phase. It contains the maximum amount of solute that can
be dissolved under the conditions at which the solution exists. An unsaturated or subsaturated solution is one
containing the dissolved solute in a concentration below the necessary for complete saturation at a definite
temperature. It contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved under the conditions at
which the solution exists. A supersaturated solution is one that contains more of the dissolved solute than it

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would normally contain at a definite temperature, were the undissolved solute present. It is an unstable solution
that temporarily contains more dissolved solute than that present in a saturated solution.

Dilution is the process in which more solvent is added to a solution in order to lower its concentration. A
concentrated solution refers to a solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the amount that could
dissolved while dilute solution refers to a solution that contains a small amount of solute relative to the amount
that could dissolve. Another set of solution term involves the modifiers on the solvents used in the solution. An
aqueous solution is a solution in which water is the solvent while a nonaqueous solution is a solution which a
substance other than water is a solvent.

An ideal solution is a solution where interactions between molecules are identical between all the
molecules in the solution. For example, a 100-mL of methanol is added with 100 mL of ethanol and the final
volume is 200 mL. No heat is evolved or absorbed thus the solution is nearly ideal. The change in enthalpy
when an ideal solution formed is zero or approximately zero. Highly dilute solutions can behave as ideal
solutions. A non-ideal solution is a solution that has differences in the interactions between molecules of different
components in the solution. It has solvent-solvent, solute-solvent, and solute-solute interactions. For example,
in a solution of 100 mL sulfuric acid is combined with 100 mL of water and the resulting total volume is 180 mL
at room temperature. Upon mixing, heat is evolved thus the solution is said to be non-ideal or real. The change
in enthalpy when a non-ideal solution forms is either a positive or negative value. Concentrated solutions behave
as non-ideal or real solutions.

Aqueous solutions in which ions are present are good conductors of electricity and the greater the number
of ions present, the better the solution conducts electricity. Acids, bases, and soluble salts all produce ions in
solution thus, they all produce solutions that conduct electricity. All three types of compounds are said to be
electrolytes. An electrolyte is a substance whose aqueous solution conducts electricity. The presence of ions
(charged particles) explains the electrical conductivity. Some substances, such as table sugar (sucrose),
glucose, and isopropyl alcohol, do not produce ions in solution. These substances are called non-electrolytes. A
non-electrolyte is a substance whose aqueous solution does not conduct electricity.

ELECTROLYTE SOLUTIONS

Electrolytes can be divided into two groups – strong electrolytes and weak electrolytes. A strong
electrolyte is a substance that completely (or almost completely) ionized / dissociates into ions in aqueous
solution. Strong electrolytes produce strongly conducting solutions. All strong acids and strong bases and all
soluble salts are strong electrolytes. A weak electrolyte is substance that incompletely ionizes / dissociates into
ions in aqueous solution. Weak electrolytes produce solutions that are intermediate between those containing
strong electrolytes and those containing non-electrolytes in their ability to conduct an electric current. Weak acids
and weak bases constitute the weak electrolytes. Whether a substance is an electrolyte in solution can be
determined by testing the ability of the solution to conduct an electric current. A device such as that shown in
Figure 1 can be used to distinguish among strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and non-electrolytes. If the
medium between the electrodes (the solution) is a conductor, the light bulb glows. A strong glow (left) indicates
a strong electrolyte. A faint glow (center) occurs for a weak electrolyte and there is no glow (right) for a non-
electrolyte.

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Figure 1. A simple device that can be used to distinguish among strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and
non-electrolytes.

The solution that results from dissolving equal molar amounts of the soluble salts KNO 3 and NaCl in
water contains four ions in equal concentrations; they are the K+, Na+, NO3-, and Cl- ions. An identical solution to
this to this one could be made from dissolving the same molar amounts of the soluble salts NaNO3 and KCl in
water; again, the ions K+, Na+, NO3-, and Cl- are present. In solutions such as these, trying to assign specific
positive ions to specific anions, or to talk about specific ionic compounds being present, has lost meaning. What
is important is the identity of the ions present and the total numbers of each type of ion present. A similar situation
occurs in the human body. All body fluids are electrolyte solution that contain several positive and negative ions.
The ions present usually have more than one source. In discussing such mixtures of ions, the focus is on ion
identity and amount of ion present, rather than on the compounds from which the ions were originally supplied.

For solutions that contain electrolytes, the concentrations of the ions present are usually specified using
the equivalent unit. An equivalent (Eq) of an ion is the molar amount of that ion needed to supply one mole of
positive or negative charge. Thus, 1 mole of Na+ ion and 1 mole of Cl- ion each equal one equivalent because
they supply one mole of electrical charge. For all ions with a +1 or -1 charge, one equivalent is equal to 1 mole
of the ion. For ions with a +2 or -2 charge there are two equivalents per one mole of ion, since each ion carries
2 units of charge. Similar considerations apply to ions with a -3 charge, such as the PO4-3 ion.

1 mole Cl- ion = 1 equivalent

1 mole Ca2+ = 2 equivalents
1 mole PO43- ion = 3 equivalents

Used even more frequently than the equivalent unit in specifying electrolyte concentrations is the smaller
concentrations is the smaller milliequivalent unit. This is because of the relatively low concentrations of ion
present in body fluids. As representative of electrolyte concentrations in body fluids, in mEq/L, consider the
blood plasma electrolyte values given in Table 2. Example 8 illustrates how an electrolyte concentration,
specified in mEq/L, is used in a calculational context.

1 milliequivalent = 10-3 equivalent

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Table 2. Concentrations of major electrolytes in blood plasma.

Milliequivalent measures the combining activity of an electrolyte in solution. It considers the total number
of ions in solution and the valence (charge) of the ions. To determine the mEq of an electrolyte solution we can
use the Formula 14. The valence measures its ability to combine with other elements. The valence can be

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identified based on the number of electrons that would be added, lost or shared if it reacts with other atoms or
in short, its number of charges. Table 3 shows the valence and atomic weight for every commonly found ions in
electrolyte solutions. For example, if we have a compound such as sodium chloride (NaCl), the valence is 1
because NaCl → Na+ + Cl-. It involves only one charge either positive or negative ion to make the compound
stable before it was introduced to the aqueous solution or before it was dissociated into Na+ and Cl- ions. Another
example if we have calcium chloride (CaCl2) as a source of electrolyte in the solution, the valence is 2, because
CaCl2 → Ca2+ + 2Cl-. The charge for Ca is 2 which means it needs 2 atoms of Cl to make the compound stable
because the charge for Cl is only 1. Hence, it needs 2 negative charges of Cl to cancel out the positive charges
of Ca which is 2 to neutralize the compound. To review on how to determine the molecular weight of a substance
see Example 9. See Example 10 for calculation problem.

Formula 14. Milliequivalent (mEq) equation.

Table 3. Values for some important ions.

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Another concentration of electrolyte solution is expressed as mg/ml and to determine that use Formula
15. If we asked for the weight (mg) of the solute used in a solution using mEq value, use Formula 16. Another
way to compute for the mEq value is by knowing the millimoles (mmols) of the substance and multiplied it by the
valence (see Formula 17). To compute for mmols of a substance use Formula 18. See Example 11,12 and 13
for calculation problems.

Formula 15. Equation to determine mg/ml Formula 16. Equation to determine the weight of
concentration in electrolyte solution. solute in mg using mEq value.

Formula 17. Equation to determine mEq Formula 18. Equation to determine mmol(s)
value using millimoles (mmols). of a substance.

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FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

The extent to which one substance dissolves in another depends on the nature of both substances.
Factors that can also affect the solubility of the solutions are solute-solvent interactions, pressure, temperature,
and molecular size. The natural tendency of substances to mix and the various interactions among solute and
solvent particles are all involved in determining solubilities. Nevertheless, insight into variations in solubility can
often be gained by simply focusing on the interaction between the solute and solvent. The data in Table 4 show,
for example, that the solubilities of various simple gases in water increase with increasing size and molecular
mass. Thus, data indicate that the solubilities of gases in water increase as the attraction between solute (gas)
and solvent (water) increases. In general, when other factors are comparable, the stronger the attractions
between solute and solvent molecules, the greater the solubility of the solute in that solvent.

Table 4. Solubilities of gases in water at Figure 2. Hexane is immiscible with water.

20 °C, with 1 atm gas pressure. Hexane is the top layer because it is less dense than water.

Because of favorable dipole-dipole attractions between solvent molecules and solute molecules, polar
liquids tend to dissolve in polar solvents. Water is both polar and able to form hydrogen bonds. Thus, polar
molecules, especially those that can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, tend to be soluble in water. For
example, acetone, a polar molecule with the structural formula shown in the margin, mixes in all proportions with
water. Acetone has a strongly polar C=O bond and pairs of nonbonding electrons on the O atom that can form
hydrogen bonds with water. Pairs of liquids that mix in all proportions, such as acetone and water, are miscible,
whereas those do not dissolve in one another are immiscible. Gasoline, which is a mixture of hydrocarbons, is
immiscible with water. Hydrocarbons are non-polar substances because of several factors: The C-C bonds are
non-polar, the C-H bonds are nearly non-polar, and the molecules are symmetrical enough to cancel much of
the weak C-H bond dipoles. The attraction between the polar water molecules and the non-polar hydrocarbon
molecules is not sufficiently strong to allow the formation of a solution. Non-polar liquids tend to be insoluble in
polar liquids as Figure 2 shows for hexane (C6H14) and water.

Many organic compounds have polar groups attached to a nonpolar framework of carbon and hydrogen
atoms. For example, the series of organic compounds in Table 5 all contain the polar OH group. Organic
compounds with this molecular feature are called alcohols. The O-H bond is able to form hydrogen bonds. For
example, ethanol (CH3CH2OH) molecules can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules as well as with each
other (see Figure 3). As a result, the solute-solute, solvent-solvent, and solute-solvent forces are not greatly

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different in a mixture of CH3CH2OH and H2O. No major change occurs in the environments of the molecules as
they are mixed. Therefore, the increased entropy when the components mix plays a significant role in solution
formation and ethanol is completely miscible with water.

Table 5. Solubilities of some alcohols in water Figure 3. Hydrogen bonding

and in hexane. involving OH groups.

Notice in Table 5 that the number of carbon atoms in an alcohol affects its solubility in water. As this
number increases, the polar OH group becomes ever smaller part of the molecule and the molecule behaves
more like a hydrocarbon. The solubility of the alcohol in water decreases correspondingly. On the other hand,
the solubility of the alcohol in non-polar solvent like hexane (C6H14) increases as the non-polar hydrocarbon
chain lengthens. One way to enhance the solubility of a substance in water is to increase the number of polar
groups the substance contains. For example, increasing the number of OH groups in a solute increases the
extent of hydrogen bonding between the solute and water thereby increasing solubility. Glucose (C6H12O6) (see
Figure 4) has five OH groups on a six-carbon framework, which makes the molecule very soluble in water (83 g
dissolves in 100 mL of water at 17.5 °C).

Figure 4. Structure and solubility.

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Over the years, examination of different solvent–solute combinations had led to an important
generalization: Substances with similar intermolecular attractive forces tend to be soluble in one another. This
generalization is often simply stated as “like dissolves like.” Non-polar substances are more likely to be soluble
in nonpolar solvents; ionic and polar solutes are more likely to be soluble in polar solvents. Network solids such
as diamond and quartz are not soluble in either polar or nonpolar solvents because of the strong bonding forces
within the solid.

The solubilities of solids and liquids are not appreciably affected by pressure, whereas the solubility of a
gas in any solvent is increased as the partial pressure of the gas above the solvent increases. We can understand
the effect of pressure on gas solubility by considering Figure 5, which shows carbon dioxide gas distributed
between the gas and solution phases. When equilibrium is established, the rate at which gas molecules enter
the solution equals the rate at which solute molecules escape from the solution enter the gas phase. The equal
number of up and down arrows in the left container in Figure 5 represent these opposing processes. Now
suppose we exert greater pressure on the piston and compress the gas above the solution, as shown in the
middle container in Figure 5. If we reduce the gas volume to half its original value. As a result of this pressure
increase, the rate at which molecules strike the liquid surface and enter the solution phase increases. Thus, the
solubility of the gas in the solution increases until equilibrium is again established; that is, solubility increases
until the rate at which gas molecules enter the solution equals the rate at which they escape from the solution.
Thus, the solubility of a gas in a liquid solvent increases in direct proportion to the partial pressure of the gas
above the solution (see Figure 6). The relationship between pressure and gas solubility is expressed by Henry’s
law.

Figure 5. Effect of pressure on gas solubility. Figure 6. The solubility of a gas in water
is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas. The solubilities
are in millimoles per liter of solution.

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The solubility of most solid solutes in water increases as the solution temperature increases, as Figure
7 shows. There are exceptions to this rule, however as seen for Ce2(SO4)3, whose solubility curve slopes
downward with increasing temperature. In contrast to solid solutes, the solubility of gases in water decreases
with increasing temperature (see Figure 8). If a glass of cold tap water is warmed, you can see bubbles on the
inside of the glass because some of the dissolved air comes out of solution. Similarly, as carbonated beverages
are allowed to warm, the solubility of CO2 decreases and CO2(g) escapes from the solution. The decreasing
solubility of O2 in water as temperature increases is one of the effects of thermal pollution of lakes and streams.
The effect is particularly serious in deep lakes because warm water is less dense than cold water. Warm water
therefore tends to remain on top of cold water, at the surface. This situation impedes the dissolving of oxygen in
the deeper layers, thus stifling the respiration of all aquatic life needing oxygen. Fish may suffocate and die under
these conditions.

Figure 7. Solubilities of some ionic compounds in water Figure 8. Solubilities of four gases in water as a
as a function of temperature. function of temperature. The solubilities are in
millimoles per liter of solution, for a constant
total pressure of 1 atm in the gas phase.

The particle size of the solids also affects its solubility in a given solvent. Generally, a decrease in the
particle size causes an increase in the solubility. This is because a decrease in particle size results in increase
in surface area and surface free energy which increases solubility.

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If an aqueous solution is very dilute, will its molality be greater than its molarity, nearly the same as its molarity,
or smaller than its molarity? Explain why.

Answers:
➢ For dilute aqueous solutions, the molality and molarity are nearly the same because dilute solutions
are mostly solvent.

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Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (28 mins + 2 mins checking)

A. Describe the following types of solution each. Check your answers against the Keys to Corrections
found at the last pages of this SAS. Write your score on your paper. An example answer is already given
below as your guide.

Types of Description
Solution
Saturated The solute in solution is in equilibrium with the solid phase. It contains the maximum
amount of solute that can be dissolved under the conditions at which the solution exists.

Unsaturated

Supersaturated

Diluted

Concentrated

Ideal

Real

Aqueous

Non-aqueous

Electrolyte

Non-Electrolyte

True

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Colloid

Suspension

B. Calculation. Compute each problem below and write the solution and your final answer in their
designated columns. Round off your final answer to four decimal places. Check your answers
against the Keys to Corrections found at the last pages of this SAS. Write your score on your paper.
Example answers are already given below as your guide.

1. What is the %(w/w) concentration of SOLUTION:

Na2SO4 in a solution made by
dissolving 7.6 g of Na2SO4 in enough
water to give 87.3 g of solution?

ANSWER: 8.7056 %(w/w)

2. A 25-mL sample of cough medicine SOLUTION:

contains 2.0 mL of ethyl alcohol.
What is the percent-by-volume
concentration of ethyl alcohol in the
cough medicine?

ANSWER:

3. A solution is prepared by dissolving SOLUTION:

12.0 grams of lactose in enough
water to give 375 mL of solution.
What is the weight-volume percent
concentration of lactose in the
solution?

ANSWER:

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4. What is the molarity of the solution if SOLUTION:

40.0 g of KCl are dissolved in enough
water to give 0.850 L of solution?

ANSWER:

5. If 33.5 g of MgCl2 is dissolved in 580 SOLUTION:

g of water. Calculate the molality of
the solution.

ANSWER:

6. If 36 g of NaBr is mixed with 300 g of SOLUTION:

H2O. What is the mole fraction of
NaBr in the solution?

ANSWER:

7. Find the normality of 0.5 M Al2(SO4)3. SOLUTION:

ANSWER:

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8. A typical concentration of Na+ in SOLUTION:

blood is 141 mEq/L. How many
moles of Na+ ions are present in 1.00
L of blood?

ANSWER:

9. How many mmols are there in 1.3 g SOLUTION:

of Magnesium sulfate?

ANSWER:

10. What is the concentration, in SOLUTION:

milligrams per milliliter, of a 30 mL
solution containing 210 mEq of
Magnesium chloride?

ANSWER:

Activity 4: What I Know Chart, Part 2 (2 mins)

Instruction: To review what was learned from this session, please go back to Activity 1 and answer the “What
I Learned” column. Notice and reflect on any changes in your answers.

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Activity 5: Check for Understanding (20 mins)

Instruction: Now it’s time for you to figure one out on your own! Take time to read, analyze, and understand to
following scenarios. Answers will be discussed by the instructor after. Write your score on your paper.

A. Calculation. Compute each problem below and write the solution and your final answer in their
designated columns. Round off your final answer to four decimal places.

1. The mass percent of MgCl2 in water SOLUTION:

is 13%. The density of the solution
is 1.21g/mL. What is the molarity of
the solution?

ANSWER:

2. Calculate the molality of a 31% SOLUTION:

mass composition of HBr aqueous
solution.

ANSWER:

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3. The volume percent of CH3CH2OH SOLUTION:

(Density = 0.789g/mL) in water
(Density = 1g/mL) is 12%. Calculate
the mole fraction of CH3CH2OH in
this solution.

ANSWER:

4. What is the normality of a solution SOLUTION:

that contains 1.2g of Al(OH)3
dissolved in 650mL?

ANSWER:

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5. Ringers injection contains 0.99% of SOLUTION:

Sodium chloride, 0.123% of
Potassium chloride and 0.129% of
Calcium chloride are contained in 1
Liter of the injection. How many
milliequivalents of NaCl, KCl, and
CaCl2 are present in a 1 L of the
solution?

ANSWER:

B. Give it some thought. Read and answer the question below.

1. How do the slopes of the lines (see Figure 6) vary with the molecular weight of the gas?
Explain the trend.
Answer:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________.

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C. LESSON WRAP-UP

Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (5 mins)

A. Work Tracker: You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session
number you just completed.

P1 P2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B. Think about your Learning. Tell me about your thoughts! Today’s topic is all about types of
solutions and their different expressions of concentrations. What surprised you about the lesson
today? Explain why.

FAQs

1. What is the importance of solubility in pharmacy? Ans: Solubility is one of the important parameters
to achieve desired concentration of drug in systemic circulation for achieving required pharmacological
response. For example, poorly water-soluble drugs are often required high doses in order to reach
therapeutic plasma concentrations after oral administration.

2. Why knowing the concentration of a particular solution is important? Ans: Knowing solution
concentration is important because it determines the solute concentration in studying chemical reactions.

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It also determines how often molecules collide in solution and thus indirectly determines the rates of
reactions and the conditions at equilibrium.

3. Other than water, what are the other common solvents used pharmaceutically? Ans: Others are
ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, glycerin, and propylene glycol.

KEY TO CORRECTIONS

Activity # 3

A. Describe the following types of solution each. NOTES: Answers may vary.

Types of Description
Solution
Saturated The solute in solution is in equilibrium with the solid phase. It contains the maximum
amount of solute that can be dissolved under the conditions at which the solution exists.

Unsaturated The dissolved solute in a concentration is below the necessary for complete saturation at
a definite temperature. It contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved under the conditions at which the solution exists.
Supersaturated Contains more of the dissolved solute than it would normally contain at a definite
temperature, were the undissolved solute present. It is an unstable solution that
temporarily contains more dissolved solute than that present in a saturated solution.
Diluted Refers to a solution that contains a small amount of solute relative to the amount that could
dissolve.

Concentrated Refers to a solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the amount that could
dissolved.

Ideal A solution where interactions between molecules are identical between all the molecules
in the solution.

Real A solution that has differences in the interactions between molecules of different
components in the solution.

Aqueous A solution in which water is the solvent.

Non-aqueous A solution in which a substance other than water is a solvent.

Electrolyte Contains molecules that ionize or dissociate completely in a solution and as a result, it
readily conducts electricity.

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Non-Electrolyte Contains molecules that do not ionize or dissociate in a solution, therefore, do not conduct
electricity.

True A mixture of two or more components that form a homogenous molecular dispersion or
one-phase system.

Colloid Represents solution system having a particle size intermediate between that of a true
solution and a coarse dispersion or suspension.

Suspension Heterogenous mixture that contains particles much larger than colloidal particles.

B. Calculation. Compute each problem below and write the solution and your final answer in their
designated columns. Round off your final answer to four decimal places.
1. What is the %(w/w) concentration of SOLUTION:
Na2SO4 in a solution made by
dissolving 7.6 g of Na2SO4 in enough
water to give 87.3 g of solution?

ANSWER: 8.0756 %(w/w)

2. A 25-mL sample of cough medicine SOLUTION:

contains 2.0 mL of ethyl alcohol.
What is the percent-by-volume
concentration of ethyl alcohol in the
cough medicine?

ANSWER: 8 %(v/v)

3. A solution is prepared by dissolving SOLUTION:

12.0 grams of lactose in enough
water to give 375 mL of solution.
What is the weight-volume percent
concentration of lactose in the
solution?

ANSWER: 3.2 %(w/v)

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4. What is the molarity of the solution if SOLUTION:

40.0 g of KCl are dissolved in enough
water to give 0.850 L of solution?

ANSWER: 0.6317 M

5. If 33.5 g of MgCl2 is dissolved in 580 SOLUTION:

g of water. Calculate the molality of
the solution.

ANSWER: 0.6080 m

6. If 36 g of NaBr is mixed with 300 g of SOLUTION:

H2O. What is the mole fraction of
NaBr in the solution?

ANSWER: 0.0205

7. Find the normality of 0.5 M Al2(SO4)3. SOLUTION:

N = M x Eq
= 0.5 x 6
=3N

ANSWER: 3 N

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8. A typical concentration of Na+ in SOLUTION:

blood is 141 mEq/L. How many
moles of Na+ ions are present in 1.00
L of blood?

ANSWER: 0.141 mole of Na+ ion

9. How many mmols are there in 1.3 g SOLUTION:

of Magnesium sulfate?

ANSWER: 10.8333 mmols

10. What is the concentration, in SOLUTION:

milligrams per milliliter, of a 30 mL
solution containing 210 mEq of
Magnesium chloride?

ANSWER: 332.5 mg/mL

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