Tutorial 1 (PHY 351)

July 2021
(a)
i. Fluctuating Dipole:
- Description: Fluctuating dipoles occur due to temporary fluctuations in the electron distribution
around molecules, leading to the creation of instantaneous dipoles. These fluctuations create
temporary positive and negative charges, resulting in an induced dipole in neighboring
molecules.
- Example: Noble gases such as helium (He). Even though noble gases are typically considered
nonpolar, temporary fluctuations in the electron cloud can create temporary dipoles, leading to
weak attractive forces between adjacent noble gas atoms.
ii. Permanent Dipole:
- Description: Permanent dipoles exist in molecules where there is a permanent separation of
charge due to differences in electronegativity between atoms. This results in a molecule having
a positive and a negative end, creating a permanent dipole moment.
- Example: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) is an example of a molecule with a permanent dipole.
Fluorine is more electronegative than hydrogen, leading to a partial negative charge on the
fluorine atom and a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom. This permanent dipole
creates attractive forces between neighboring HF molecules.
February 2021
(a)
i. Calcium Fluoride (CaF2):
- Bonding Type: Calcium fluoride is an ionic compound, meaning it forms through ionic bonding.
In this case, calcium (Ca) donates electrons to fluorine (F), resulting in the formation of
positively charged calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and negatively charged fluoride ions (F⁻). The
electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions holds the compound together.
- Strength: Ionic bonds, including those in calcium fluoride, are generally strong. The
electrostatic attraction between ions leads to a high bond strength.
- Hardness: Ionic compounds like calcium fluoride are typically hard and brittle. The
arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice structure contributes to the hardness.
- Melting Point: Calcium fluoride has a high melting point due to the strong ionic bonds. It
requires a significant amount of energy to overcome the attractive forces between the positively
and negatively charged ions and transition from a solid to a liquid state.
ii. Potassium (K):
- Bonding Type: Potassium is a metal and forms metallic bonding. Metallic bonding involves a
sea of delocalized electrons surrounding positively charged metal ions. In the case of
potassium, each atom donates one electron to the electron sea, creating K⁺ ions and free
electrons.
- Strength: Metallic bonds are strong, but not as strong as ionic bonds. The strength comes from
the attraction between the positive metal ions and the delocalized electrons.
- Hardness: Metals generally exhibit malleability and ductility due to the ability of metal ions to
slide past each other. However, potassium is a soft alkali metal, so it is relatively soft and can be
easily cut with a knife.
- Melting Point: Metals, in general, have lower melting points compared to ionic compounds.
Potassium has a relatively low melting point for a metal, but it is still solid at room temperature.
June 2020
(a)
Ionic Bonds:
- Description: Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
resulting in the formation of ions with opposite charges. The electrostatic attraction between
these oppositely charged ions holds them together in a stable compound.
- Example: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of an ionic bond. Sodium (Na) donates
an electron to chlorine (Cl), leading to the formation of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. The resulting
electrostatic attraction between Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions create the ionic bond in NaCl.
Covalent Bonds:
- Description: Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons to achieve a stable electron
configuration. In a covalent bond, the shared electrons contribute to the electron clouds of both
atoms, creating a molecular bond.
- Example: Water (H₂O) is an example of a covalent bond. In a water molecule, each hydrogen
atom shares its electron with the oxygen atom. The oxygen atom shares one electron with each
hydrogen atom, forming two covalent bonds in the H₂O molecule.

(b)
Ionic Bonding:
- Nature: Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions (cation and anion). The electrostatic
attraction between these ions holds them together in a crystal lattice structure.
- Type of Compounds: Ionic bonds typically form between metals and nonmetals.
- Properties: Ionic compounds tend to have high melting and boiling points, are often soluble in
water, and conduct electricity when dissolved or molten.
Covalent Bonding:
- Nature: Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Each atom
contributes one or more electrons to a shared electron pair, creating a molecular bond.
- Type of Compounds: Covalent bonds are common in molecules formed by nonmetals.
- Properties: Covalent compounds can have various physical states (solid, liquid, or gas) and
generally have lower melting and boiling points compared to ionic compounds. They may not
conduct electricity in most cases.
Metallic Bonding:
- Nature: Metallic bonding occurs in metals, where electrons are delocalized and free to move
throughout the structure. The positive metal ions are held together by the sea of electrons.
- Type of Compounds: Metallic bonding is characteristic of metals.
- Properties: Metals typically have high electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity,
malleability, and ductility. They usually have high melting and boiling points.
Differences:
- Electron Sharing/Transfer:
Ionic: Involves the transfer of electrons.
Covalent: Involves the sharing of electrons.
Metallic: Involves a "sea" of delocalized electrons shared among metal ions.
- Type of Compounds:
Ionic: Forms between metals and nonmetals.
Covalent: Common in molecules formed by nonmetals.
Metallic: Characteristic of metals.
- Properties:
Ionic: High melting and boiling points, solubility in water, and conductivity when dissolved or
molten.
Covalent: Variable physical states, lower melting and boiling points, and often insulators.
Metallic: High electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, ductility, and high melting and
boiling points.
December 2019
(a)
i) Ionic Bonding:
- Description: Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
leading to the formation of ions with opposite charges. The electrostatic attraction between
these oppositely charged ions holds them together in a stable compound.
- Example: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of ionic bonding. In this compound,
sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl). The result is the formation of a sodium ion
(Na⁺) and a chloride ion (Cl⁻), which are held together by the electrostatic attraction between the
positive and negative charges.
ii) Covalent Bonding:
- Description: Covalent bonding occurs when electrons are shared between atoms. Atoms
involved in covalent bonds share one or more pairs of electrons to achieve a more stable
electron configuration.
- Example: Water (H₂O) is a common example of covalent bonding. In a water molecule, each
hydrogen atom shares one electron with the oxygen atom, and the oxygen atom shares one
electron with each hydrogen atom. This sharing creates two covalent bonds within the H₂O
molecule, contributing to the stability of the compound.
June 2019
(a)
i) Metallic Bonding:
- Nature of the Bond: Metallic bonding involves the attraction between positively charged metal
ions and a "sea" of delocalized electrons. The electrons are shared among all the metal ions,
creating a three-dimensional structure.
- Valence of Atoms Involved: Metallic bonding typically occurs in metals, where valence
electrons are free to move throughout the structure.
- Ductility: Metals are generally ductile, meaning they can be drawn into thin wires without
breaking.
- Example: Copper (Cu) is an example of a metal with metallic bonding. In a copper lattice, each
copper atom contributes one or more electrons to the electron sea, creating a structure held
together by the electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the delocalized
electrons.
ii) Covalent Bonding:
- Nature of the Bond: Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms to
achieve a more stable electron configuration. Atoms share electron pairs to form molecules.
- Valence of Atoms Involved: Covalent bonding typically occurs between nonmetal atoms, where
they share electrons to fill their valence shells.
- Ductility: Covalent materials can vary in ductility. Some covalent compounds can be brittle,
while others may exhibit some degree of ductility.
- Example: Silicon Dioxide (SiO₂), also known as quartz, is an example of a covalently bonded
material. In quartz, each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms through covalent bonds.
The sharing of electrons contributes to the stability of the silicon dioxide structure.
December 2018
(a)
i) Sodium Chloride (NaCl):
- Type of Bonding: Sodium chloride is an example of ionic bonding.
- Nature of the Bond: Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred from one atom to
another, resulting in the formation of positively charged ions (cation) and negatively charged
ions (anion). In NaCl, sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl), forming Na⁺ and Cl⁻
ions. The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions creates the ionic bond
in the crystal lattice structure of sodium chloride.
- Explanation: Sodium chloride is composed of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions arranged in a three-
dimensional crystal lattice. The ionic bond between these ions is strong and leads to the
characteristic properties of ionic compounds, such as high melting and boiling points, solubility
in water, and electrical conductivity when dissolved or molten.
ii) Methane (CH₄):
- Type of Bonding: Methane is an example of covalent bonding.
- Nature of the Bond: Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share electrons to achieve a more
stable electron configuration. In methane, each hydrogen atom shares one electron with the
carbon atom, forming four covalent bonds. The result is a tetrahedral arrangement of the
hydrogen atoms around the carbon atom.
- Explanation: Methane consists of a carbon atom (C) bonded to four hydrogen atoms (H). The
shared electrons contribute to the stability of the molecule, and the covalent bonds keep the
atoms connected in a fixed spatial arrangement. Covalent compounds like methane typically
have lower melting and boiling points compared to ionic compounds, and they may not conduct
electricity in most cases.
June 2018
(a)
i) Ionic Bonding:
- Description: Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
resulting in the formation of ions with opposite charges. The electrostatic attraction between
these oppositely charged ions holds them together in a stable compound.
- Example: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of ionic bonding. In this compound,
sodium (Na) donates an electron to chlorine (Cl), leading to the formation of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
The electrostatic attraction between these ions creates the ionic bond in the crystal lattice
structure of sodium chloride.
ii) Hydrogen Bonding:
- Description: Hydrogen bonding is a specific type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs when
a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (usually nitrogen, oxygen, or
fluorine) and is attracted to another electronegative atom in a neighboring molecule.
- Example: Water (H₂O) exhibits hydrogen bonding. In a water molecule, the hydrogen atoms
are covalently bonded to the oxygen atom. The oxygen atom is highly electronegative, creating
a partial negative charge near the oxygen and a partial positive charge near the hydrogen
atoms. The hydrogen atoms in one water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with the oxygen
atoms in neighboring water molecules, leading to unique properties like high cohesion, high
surface tension, and a relatively high boiling point for a molecule of similar size.
January 2018
(a)
i) Ionic Bonding:
- Strength: Ionic bonds are generally strong due to the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions. The strength of ionic bonds contributes to the high melting and boiling
points of ionic compounds.
- Hardness: Ionic compounds are typically hard and brittle. The arrangement of ions in a crystal
lattice structure contributes to their hardness. However, they can be brittle and may shatter
when subjected to force.
- Melting Point: Ionic compounds often have high melting and boiling points. This is because a
significant amount of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic forces between
positively and negatively charged ions, transitioning from a solid to a liquid state.
ii) Metallic Bonding:
- Strength: Metallic bonds are strong, but not as strong as ionic bonds. The strength comes from
the attraction between the positive metal ions and the delocalized electrons.
- Hardness: Metals are generally malleable and ductile, meaning they can be shaped and
stretched without breaking. This is because the metal ions can slide past each other without
disrupting the overall structure.
- Melting Point: Metals typically have high melting points. The strength of metallic bonds
contributes to this, as a significant amount of energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces
between the positive metal ions and the delocalized electrons.
March 2017
(a)
i) Covalent Bonding:
- Description: Covalent bonding occurs when electrons are shared between two nonmetal atoms
to achieve a more stable electron configuration. Each atom contributes one or more electrons to
the shared electron pair, forming a molecule.
- Example: Water (H₂O) is a common example of covalent bonding. In a water molecule, each
hydrogen atom shares one electron with the oxygen atom. The oxygen atom shares one
electron with each hydrogen atom, creating two covalent bonds within the H₂O molecule.
ii) Metallic Bonding:
- Description: Metallic bonding occurs in metals, where positively charged metal ions are held
together by a sea of delocalized electrons. The electrons are free to move throughout the
structure, creating a unique bond that contributes to the properties of metals.
- Example: Copper (Cu) is an example of metallic bonding. In a copper lattice, each copper
atom contributes one or more electrons to the electron sea. The positively charged copper ions
(Cu⁺) are attracted to the negatively charged delocalized electrons, creating a cohesive
structure that gives metals their characteristic properties.
October 2016
1. (a)
The atomic mass (A) of an atom is the total mass of an atom, typically expressed in atomic
mass units (amu). It is a weighted average of the masses of all isotopes of an element,
considering the abundance of each isotope. The atomic mass is primarily composed of two
types of particles found in the nucleus of an atom:
Protons: Description: Protons are positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of
an atom. Each proton carries a charge of +1.
Neutrons: Description: Neutrons are electrically neutral subatomic particles found in the nucleus
of an atom. Unlike protons, they do not carry an electric charge.

(b)
Ionic Bonding:
- Nature of Bonding: Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred from one atom to
another, resulting in the formation of ions with opposite charges. The electrostatic attraction
between these ions holds them together in an ionic compound.
- Electron Sharing/Transfer: Involves the complete transfer of electrons.
- Bond Formation: Typically occurs between a metal and a nonmetal.
- Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of ionic bonding.
Covalent Bonding:
- Nature of Bonding: Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two nonmetal
atoms to achieve a more stable electron configuration. Each atom contributes one or more
electrons to a shared electron pair, forming a molecule.
- Electron Sharing/Transfer: Involves the sharing of electrons.
- Bond Formation: Typically occurs between nonmetal atoms.
- Example: Water (H₂O) is an example of covalent bonding.
Metallic Bonding:
- Nature of Bonding: Metallic bonding occurs in metals, where positively charged metal ions are
held together by a sea of delocalized electrons. The electrons are free to move throughout the
structure.
- Electron Sharing/Transfer: Involves the delocalized sharing of electrons.
- Bond Formation: Occurs between metal atoms.
- Example: Copper (Cu) is an example of metallic bonding.
Differences:
- Electron Transfer/Sharing: Ionic bonding involves the complete transfer of electrons, covalent
bonding involves the sharing of electrons, and metallic bonding involves the delocalized sharing
of electrons.
-Bond Formation: Ionic bonds typically form between a metal and a nonmetal, covalent bonds
form between nonmetals, and metallic bonds form between metal atoms.
- Nature of Bond: Ionic bonds result in the formation of charged ions, covalent bonds create
molecules, and metallic bonds create a sea of delocalized electrons surrounding metal ions.
- Properties: Ionic compounds often have high melting and boiling points, covalent compounds
can have variable physical states and lower melting points, and metals typically have high
electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, and ductility.
March 2016
(a)
i) Covalent Bonding:
- Description: Covalent bonding is a type of chemical bonding where electrons are shared
between two nonmetal atoms. This sharing of electrons allows each atom to achieve a more
stable electron configuration, usually resembling the noble gas configuration.
- Electron Sharing: In a covalent bond, electrons are shared in pairs between the atoms
involved. Each atom contributes one or more electrons to the shared pair, forming a covalent
bond.
- Formation of Molecules: Covalent bonds lead to the formation of molecules. A molecule
consists of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
- Example: One classic example of covalent bonding is in the molecule hydrogen gas (H₂). Each
hydrogen atom contributes one electron to a shared pair, forming a stable H₂ molecule.
ii) Ionic Bonding:
- Description: Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that occurs between a metal and a
nonmetal. In ionic bonding, electrons are transferred from the metal atom to the nonmetal atom,
resulting in the formation of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions
(anions). The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions forms an ionic
bond.
- Electron Transfer: Unlike covalent bonding, ionic bonding involves the complete transfer of
electrons. The metal atom loses electrons to become a cation, and the nonmetal gains those
electrons to become an anion.
- Formation of Ionic Compounds: Ionic bonds lead to the formation of ionic compounds, which
are often crystalline structures held together by the electrostatic forces between ions.
- Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of ionic bonding. Sodium (Na) donates
an electron to chlorine (Cl), resulting in the formation of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. The electrostatic
attraction between Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions form the ionic bond in the compound.
September 2015
(a)
i) Two Primary Bonding:
- Ionic Bonding
- Covalent Bonding
ii) Description and Examples:
1. Ionic Bonding:
- Description: Ionic bonding occurs when electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
resulting in the formation of ions with opposite charges. The electrostatic attraction between
these oppositely charged ions holds them together in a compound.
- Example: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of ionic bonding. Sodium (Na) donates
an electron to chlorine (Cl), leading to the formation of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. The electrostatic
attraction between these ions forms the ionic bond in the crystal lattice structure of sodium
chloride.
2. Covalent Bonding:
- Description: Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between two nonmetal atoms
to achieve a more stable electron configuration. Each atom contributes one or more electrons to
a shared electron pair, forming a molecule.
- Example: Water (H₂O) is an example of covalent bonding. In a water molecule, each hydrogen
atom shares one electron with the oxygen atom, and the oxygen atom shares one electron with
each hydrogen atom. This sharing creates two covalent bonds within the H₂O molecule,
contributing to the stability of the compound.
March 2015
(b)
Ionic Bonds:
- Description: Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another. This
transfer results in the formation of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions
(anions). The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions holds them
together in a crystal lattice structure, forming an ionic compound.
- Example: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is a classic example of an ionic compound. Sodium (Na)
donates an electron to chlorine (Cl), leading to the formation of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions. The
electrostatic attraction between these ions creates the ionic bond in the crystal lattice structure
of sodium chloride.
Covalent Bonds:
- Description: Covalent bonds form when electrons are shared between two nonmetal atoms.
Each atom contributes one or more electrons to a shared electron pair, resulting in the formation
of molecules. The shared electrons help both atoms achieve a more stable electron
configuration.
- Example: Water (H₂O) is an example of a compound with covalent bonds. In a water molecule,
each hydrogen atom shares one electron with the oxygen atom, and the oxygen atom shares
one electron with each hydrogen atom. This sharing creates two covalent bonds within the H₂O
molecule, contributing to the stability of the compound.