vid 1

Metals
- are essential materials found in numerous everyday objects due to their remarkable
properties
- Example: Morning activities included using a metal pot for cooking and a kettle with a
metal heating element for making coffee.
- Metals, known for their heat conductivity, are preferred for such applications over
materials like wood or plastic.

Conductivity
- Metals exhibit excellent heat and electrical conductivity, making them ideal for various
purposes.
- For instance, copper wires, renowned for their conductivity, are commonly used in
electrical appliances.
- This conductivity stems from the unique properties of metallic bonding.
- Free-floating electrons are the reason why metals can conduct electricity.

Metallic Bonding
- Description: Metallic bonding involves the electrostatic attraction between metal ions
arranged in a lattice structure and the free-flowing electrons within this structure. We call
it Sea of Electrons
- The lattice structure refers to a regular repeating pattern
- Unlike ionic lattices, metal structures consist solely of metal ions. Metal ions are
arranged side by side in a regular repeating pattern
- Free electrons act as a cohesive force, maintaining the structural integrity of the metal.
- A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome this attraction.
- This is also why metals are very good conductors of heat.

Strength and Properties

- Metals possess high melting and boiling points due to the strong electrostatic attraction
within their lattice structure.
- Overcoming this attraction requires significant heat energy.
- The conductivity of heat and electricity in metals is facilitated by the presence of
free-moving electrons.
- Metals are malleable (molded into diff shapes) and ductile (stretched into wires), allowing
them to be shaped into various forms without compromising their integrity.

Application and Utility

- Metals find extensive use in everyday items such as cars, bicycles, trains, planes,
buildings, cutlery, spectacles, and furniture.
- Their versatility and properties make them indispensable in modern life.
VID 2

Bonding
- Atoms bond to achieve stability through completing outermost electron orbits.
- Stability is attained by satisfying the octet configuration, known as the octet rule.
- Chemical bonds form intramolecularly or intermolecularly to achieve stability.
a. Intramolecular bonds form compounds by bonding atoms.
b. Intermolecular forces attract atoms and molecules together.

Intramolecular Bonds:
1. Covalent Bonds:
- Result from sharing a pair or pairs of electrons between atoms.
- Form a new molecular orbital extending around both nuclei.
- Common in organic molecules, leading to high molecular mass compounds.
- Can yield various structures like linear, branched, cross-linked, or crystal lattice.
- Allotropes (different forms of an element in its natural state) example: Graphite and
Diamond (carbon).
- Graphite: Three covalent bonds with one delocalized electron, forming planes.
- Diamond: Exhibits tetrahedral geometry in bonding.
- Covalent bonds categorized as polar or nonpolar.

I. Polar Covalent Bonds:

- Occur between non-metal atoms with different electronegativities. (Electronegativity is
the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of bonded electrons in its combined
state. electropositivity is the opposite.)
- Electrons shared unequally, resulting in partial charge distribution.
- Denoted by dipole arrow and lowercase delta with a charged superscript.
 - Examples: HCl and HF.
- Higher melting/boiling points, solubility in polar solvents.

II. Nonpolar Covalent Bonds:

- Formed between atoms with similar electronegativities.
- Electrons shared equally.
- Tend to exist as gases with low melting/boiling points.
- Soluble in nonpolar solvents.
- Examples: H2, O2, N2.

Factors Influencing Covalent vs. Ionic Bonds:

- Covalent bonds when electronegativity difference is insufficient for electron transfer.
- Atoms involved with high ionization energies.

4. Ionic Bonds:
- Occur between atoms with significantly different electronegativities.
- Electrons transferred, resulting in ions.
- Anion (negative) and cation (positive) attract, forming a molecule.
- Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl).
- Ionic compounds can dissociate into ions in solution.
- Likelihood of formation depends on atom radius, electronegativity difference.

5. Metallic Bonds:
- Formed between metals, metalloids, and alloys.
- Positively charged atoms share electrons, creating a "sea of electrons."
- Examples include gold, silver, and iron.

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Conclusion:
 - Different bond types yield different properties.
- Covalent bonds: non-metals, ionic bonds: metal/non-metal, metallic bonds: metals.
- Molecular substances: solids, liquids, or gases; ionic/metallic compounds: typically solids
at room temperature.

V3

Introduction:
- Non-metals bond through covalent bonds, sharing electrons to achieve full outer shells.
- Simple molecular substances and giant covalent structures are formed based on covalent
bonding.

Focus: Properties of Simple Molecular Substances:

1. Definition:
- Simple molecular substances comprise small molecules like chlorine or ammonia.
- Formed by covalent bonds between atoms.

2. Strength of Covalent Bonds:

- Covalent bonds are strong, requiring significant energy to break.
- In simple molecular substances, breaking bonds between atoms within each molecule is not
necessary for melting or boiling.
- Only weak intermolecular forces between molecules need to be overcome.
- Low temperatures sufficient for melting/boiling (e.g., chlorine boils at -34°C).

3. Intermolecular Forces:
- Weak forces between molecules are termed intermolecular forces.
- Greater number of intermolecular forces result in stronger overall attraction.
- Example: Halogens (chlorine, bromine, iodine) exhibit increased boiling points down the
group due to larger molecules and more intermolecular forces.

4. Electrical Conductivity:
- Simple molecular substances do not conduct electricity.
- Lack free electrons or ions necessary for electrical conduction.

Focus: Giant Covalent Structures:

1. Definition:
- Comprise huge numbers of non-metal atoms bonded by covalent bonds.
- Arranged into regular repeating lattices.

2. Strength and Melting/Boiling Points:

- Very strong structures with high melting/boiling points.
- Breaking all covalent bonds required for melting.
- Examples: Diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide.
3. Electrical Conductivity:
- Generally do not conduct electricity due to absence of charged particles.
- Exception: Graphite can conduct electricity due to its unique structure.

Focus: Silicon Dioxide (Silica):

1. Composition:
- Made of silicon and oxygen atoms in a 1:2 ratio.
- Known as silica, main component of sand.

2. Recognition:
- Recognizable as a giant covalent structure.

Conclusion:
- Simple molecular substances consist of small, weakly bonded molecules with low
melting/boiling points and no electrical conductivity.
- Giant covalent structures feature strong, covalently bonded atoms arranged in repeating
lattices with high melting/boiling points and generally no electrical conductivity.
- Understanding the distinction between these structures is crucial for comprehending their
properties and behaviors.