Chemical Bonding

- When atoms meet

The name’s Bond …

Chemical Bond

© Gordon Wilson, Camberwell Grammar School

 Intermolecular Intramolecular

2
2
Elements and Compounds

Metals

Br2
Non-Metals
-Covalent Ionic
NaCl

S8
CuSO4

MgCO3
C6H12O6
3
 Comparing Substances
Chlorine has covalent Sodium is held Sodium chloride is
bonding within together with the product of the
discrete, separate metallic bonding in reaction with sodium
molecules. It is a giant structures and chlorine. It is
toxic and reactive (lattices). It is stable, benign and
gas. reactive with air abundant on earth.
and water, so is It exists as giant
not found freely in lattices of ions, held
nature. together by ionic
bonds.

4
5
5
 Properties of Metals

What are the chemical and physical properties of

most metals?

• solid at room temperature

• high melting point
• good conductors of heat and electricity
• malleable - they can be flattened and shaped
• ductile - they can be drawn into wires
• strong
• dense
• sonorous 6
 What is the structure of metals?
The atoms in a pure metal are in tightly-packed layers,
which form a regular lattice structure.
The outer electrons of the
metal atoms separate from the
atoms and create a ‘sea of
electrons’.
These electrons are delocalised sea of electrons
and so are free to move through
the whole structure.
The metal atoms exist as cations (positively charged)
and are attracted to the sea of electrons. This
attraction is called metallic bonding.
7
 How do metals conduct heat?
Delocalised electrons in metallic bonding allow metals to
conduct heat and electricity.
+ + + + + + For example, when a metal is
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
heated, the delocalised
+ + + + +

electrons gain kinetic energy.

These electrons then move
faster and transfer the gained
energy throughout the metal.
This makes heat transfer in
metals very efficient.

heat 8
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
How do metals conduct electricity?

+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
Delocalised electrons in metallic
bonding allow metals to conduct
heat and electricity.

They conduct electricity

through metals in a similar
way.

Delocalised electrons also

reflect light, explaining why
metals are lustrous.
9
 Explaining
Why Metallic
are metals strong? Properties
Metals are usually strong, not brittle. When a metal is
hit, the layers of metal ions are able to slide over each
other, and so the structure does not shatter.
metal before it is hit metal after it is hit

force force

The metallic bonds do not break because the delocalised

electrons are free to move throughout the structure.
This also explains why metals are malleable (easy to
shape) and ductile (can be drawn into wires).
10
 Limitations of the Model
This model does not explain all the properties of metals.

Why are some metals (iron, nickel and cobalt) magnetic and most
are not.

Why is there such a large range of melting temperatures?

Mercury: -38°C, liquid at room temperature Tungsten:
3422°C

There is also a large range of densities

Aluminium, 2.7 g/cm3
Lead 11.4 g/cm3
11
12
 Ionic Properties
 High melting point, boiling point
 Hard
 Brittle
 Non-Conductor in solid form The shape of the molecule
 Conducts as liquid is an indication of the
arrangement of atoms.

e.g. NaCl, K2CO3, Mg(OH)2, AlPO4

13
13
 For current to flow …

For substances to be able to conduct electricity

they must:
Contain charged particles (electrons or ions)
AND
The charged particles must be able to move

In other words they must be Free to Move and

contain Charge
14
 OH- Polyatomic Ions NO3-

Also known as molecular ions, these are two or more

atoms covalently bonded and act as single units.

NO3- PO43-

SO42-
CO32-
HSO4-
15
 Octet Rule
Atoms will generally react in such a way as to have 8 valence
electrons. The exception to this rule is hydrogen, with a
maximum of 2 electrons in the first shell.

Electron Valence Bonds

Group
configuration electrons formed
1 ns1 1 1
2 ns2 2 2
3 ns2np1 3 3 The number of electrons the
4 ns2np2 4 4 atoms needs to complete the
5 ns2np3 5 3 octet (whether losing/gaining
6 ns2np4 6 2 or sharing) equals the total
7 ns2np5 7 1 number of bonds they make.
16
 Atomic Radius of Main Group
Increasing Core Charge

H He

Li Be B C N O F Ne
Increasing number of shells

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe 17
Atomic Radius Trends
s2
Decreasing Atomic Radius p6

Decreasing Atomic Radius

18
Why do Metals Donate Electrons?
Metal atoms with a positive charge is called a cation (CAT-ion).
Non-metals forms negatively charged ions – anions (AN-ion).

The sodium atom, which has 11 protons and 11 electrons, easily

loses one electron. The resulting cation has 11 protons and 10
electrons with a net charge of 1+.

Metals always donate electrons to non-metals.

Both ions will have 8 valence electrons. 19

 Ionic Structure

Ionic compounds form crystal lattices resulting from the

regular 3D arrangement of cations and anions.

Ions arrange themselves in the most stable configuration.

– oppositely charged ions fit as close together as possible,

while ions of the same charge are as far apart as possible.

The strength of the ionic bonding is dependent on the size

and the charge of the anions and cations.

20
 Comparing Atom / Ion Radii
Metal atoms are larger than their cations, while non-metal
atoms are smaller. Why? (Hint: electronic configurations)

21
 Ionic Compound Bond Strength
Compound Melting Pt Cation Charge Anion Charge
NaCl 801°C +1 -1
MgO 2800°C +2 -2
In general, the greater the charge, the greater the
electrostatic attraction, the stronger the ionic bond and the
higher the melting point.

Ionic Compound Melting Pt Cation Radius

NaF 992°C 99 pm
KF 857°C 136 pm
RbF 775°C 148 pm
CsF 683°C 169 pm
Smaller ions can pack closer together than larger ions so the
electrostatic attraction is greater, the ionic bond is
stronger, the melting point is higher. 22
As the charge on ions increases or the distance between ions
decreases, so does the strength of the attractive (+/−) or repulsive
(−/− or +/+) interactions.
The strength of these interactions is represented by the thickness of
the arrows. 23
 How Do Elements React? (Ionic)

11 9
Na F

Electronic Configuration:
2,8,1 2,7

24
 Sodium Fluorine
(11 Protons) (9 Protons)

Electron Configuration

2,8
2,8,1 2,7
2,8

Sodium’s valence electron is transferred to the fluorine atom

25
 Sodium Fluorine
(11 Protons) (9 Protons)

+1 -1

Positive Ion Negative Ion

Opposites Attract
Electrostatic Force (Ionic Bond)

26
 Sodium Fluoride
NaF

Positive Ion Negative Ion

Opposites Attract
Electrostatic Force (Ionic Bond)

27
 Ionic Properties
Ionic compounds are giant lattices of positive and
negative ions. They are held in place by ionic bonding –
with opposite charges attracted to their neighbour.

Properties
 High melting and boiling points – much energy
required to break bonds
 Solid is electrical insulator, liquid is conductor
Charged ions require freedom of movement
 Hard, brittle
Strong force is needed to disrupt the strong bonds

Pyrite, FeS2
28
 What about other Ions?

12 17
Mg Cl
Electron Configuration: 2,8,2 2,8,7

Draw an electron dot diagram for this arrangement

29
Chlorine Magnesium Chlorine
(17 Protons) (12 Protons) (17 Protons)

-1 +2 -1

Electron Configuration

2,8,8
2,8,7 2,8
2,8,2 2,8,8
2,8,7

30
Chlorine Magnesium Chlorine
(17 Protons) (12 Protons) (17 Protons)
MgCl2

Electron Configuration

2,8,8
2,8,7 2,8
2,8,2 2,8,8
2,8,7

Attractive Electrostatic Force

(Ionic Bond) 31
 Ionic Compounds
 Metal donates electron(s) to non-metal
 Metal become a positive ion (cation)
 Non-metal becomes a negative ion (anion)

Non-
Metal
Metal

32
Why Ionic Compounds are Brittle

Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+

Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl–

Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+

When shearing forces are
Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+applied to+ the
Cl– Na Cl– crystal:

Like-charges become close so

they repel
Electrostatic
Repulsion - and the crystal breaks
33
34
 Covalent Compound Types
Covalent Molecular
substances consist of a
small number of atoms to
form molecules such as
Covalent Networks –
carbon dioxide (CO2)
consist of an infinite
number of atoms to form
giant network lattices
such as diamond and layer
lattices such as graphite.

35
Covalent Molecular Properties

 Low melting and boiling point

 Soft
 Non-Conductors in solid
 Non-Conductors in liquid

36
 Covalent Bond
Occur between nonmetallic elements of similar
electronegativity.
 They form by sharing electron pairs
 Stable non-ionising particles, they do not conduct in
any state
 Examples: O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, SiC

37
38
 Octet Rule

Fact: Noble gases are most stable elements. They are

chemically unreactive.

This is due to 8 valence electrons.

Octet Rule:
‘Elements react in order to obtain 8 electrons in outer shell’

39
 Lewis Structures
Lewis structures show the electron distribution
around an atom. They help you determine how many
covalent bonds form between atoms.
Place one dot per valence electron on each of the
four sides of the element symbol. Pair the electron
dots until all of the valence electrons are used.

40
 Lewis Structure Rules
Each of the outer shell
electrons are represented
by a dot.

Electrons taking place in the

covalent bond (bonding electrons)
are placed between the atoms
involved in the bond.
Outer shell electrons not taking part in
the bonding (non-bonding electrons) are
placed around the atoms in pairs.
Atom with the most bonding electrons is placed in the middle.
All electrons must be paired – each atom must have 8
electrons around it (except hydrogen which has 2).
41
 Valence Structures
Each pair of bonding electrons is
represented with a line.
Lone pairs are also represented with a line.

Lone pairs and bonding pairs are arranged

around the atoms in such a way that they
are separated from each other as much as
possible.

Each atom must have 4 lines around it, representing a total of

8, (except hydrogen which has only one line for its two
electrons).
42
 What about Non-Metals?

F F

2,7 2,7

These molecules exist in nature. Since all atoms in the molecule

are identical, there is an equal sharing of electrons.
43
43
 Fluorine (F2)

Give me your No way!

electron Get your own

Transfer doesn’t work here

44
Fluorine (F2)

Let’s
Share!

45
 Covalent Bonding
How many valence electrons
around each atom?

F2 F-F

A covalent bond is the sharing

of one pair of electrons
46
 Covalent Bond - Hydrogen

Shared electrons are in the outer shells of both atoms

The valence (outer) shells of both of these H atoms now

have 2 electrons.

47
 Oxygen
Oxygen has 6 valence electrons, needing 2 to complete
its octet. It therefore forms 2 bonds.
A double
bond is
formed

O2
O O 48
What about Nitrogen?
N N2N

How many
How bonds
many Valence
will Bond
Triple complete
Electrons?
the octet?

49
 Multiple Bonds
Atoms can share more than two electrons
·· ··
F2 F F Single bond
–

··
··
·· ··
·· ··
O2 O=O ·· Double bond
··

N2 N N Triple bond
··
··

50
 s

o ne
pa ir
Water
L

airs
d)p
n de
-bo
n
no
n e(
Lo

irs
pa
d
n de
Bo

In water, there are four pairs of electrons surrounding the

central oxygen atom. Why is the bond angle less than the
predicted 109°? 51
 Lo
ne
pa
ir

Bo
nd
e d
pa
ir
s
Ammonia

52
 Exceptions to Octet Rule:
Sulfur Dioxide
Lewis Diagram Structural Formula

Molecular Diagram

53
Phosphorus (V) Chloride

54
Sulfur hexafluoride

55
Beryllium chloride /
Boron fluoride

56
 Molecular Diagrams

There are various representations of molecules to illustrate

and their shapes and bonds.

57
 VSEPR
VSEPR theory (pronounced
Vesper) proposes that the
geometric arrangement of
atoms about a central atom Linear arrangement of Vespas
in a covalent compound is determined by the repulsions
between valence electron pairs.
Since electron pairs repel, they orient themselves as far
apart as possible from each other. This leads to molecules
having specific shapes.

58
 0 Lone Pairs 1 Lone Pair 2 Lone Pairs

1 linear
180°
2 linear linear

3
V-shaped V-shaped
trigonal Planar
120°
120° 109°

4 109° trigonal pyramid

tetrahedral

trigonal bipyramid
5
120°
90°

octahedral
6
The lone pairs (shown in yellow here)
90° influence the shape of the molecule, but are
59

not mentioned with its naming.

 Covalent Networks – 3D
• High melting point, boiling point
• Very hard, brittle
• Non-Conductor in solid / liquid

Diamond

60
 Covalent Networks – 3D

SiO2

There are four examples of 3-D covalent networks -

SiO, SiO2 (sand), SiC (carborundum), C (diamond)
These have strong covalent bonds throughout the giant
molecular structure. 61
 Covalent Networks – 2D

Graphite is the only example of a 2-D covalent network

Graphite has each carbon bonded to 3 adjacent atoms,
with one delocalised electron.
It will conduct in 2 dimensions, but not the 3rd. Why?

It is used as a conducting lubricant for electrical contacts.

62
 Graphene and Buckyballs

A single layer of graphite is called graphene. They can be

formed into balls or long nanotubes.
Graphene is chemically stable, such as resistant to acids.
Applications include high performance nano-electronics,
optics and medicinal uses.
64
 Electronegativity
Electronegativity describes the tendency of an atom to
attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself.
An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic
number and the distance of its valence electrons from the
charged nucleus. Smaller atoms tend to have higher
electronegativity.
Core charge is the force of
attraction between a nucleus and its electron poor electron rich
region
valence electrons. It increases as you region
move across a period. d +H F
d -

This explains why the atomic radius

decreases across a period. It also
explains increasing electronegativity
across a period. 65
 Core Charge
Core charge = number of protons
in the nucleus – number of total
inner-shell electrons

11
13
15
17
12 +
14
16
18

Increasing core charge

∴ Increasing attraction to nucleus

66
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Electronegativity Trends

67
 Polar Covalent Bond
A covalent bond with greater electron density around one of
the two atoms will produce a dipole, with a slightly more
negative and positive ends.
Denoted by the symbol: d electron poor
electron rich
region
region
The greater the difference
in electronegativity, the
d + H F
d-
more polar is the bond.

68
 Water – a Polar Molecule
electron rich
region

electron poor
region

Water is a polar molecule. Oxygen is more electronegative than

hydrogen, and the bonded electrons are pulled closer to oxygen.
69
 CF4
CHCl3
Polar Molecules

Polar molecules have a positive and a negative end, known as

a dipole.
The molecule must contain polar bonds. This can be
determined from differences in electronegativity.
Symmetry can cancel out the effects of the polar bonds. If
the atoms are identical, the bond will not be polar.

BCl3

Methanol

70
 Covalent Molecules

Difference in E/N Same E/N

Asymmetrical Symmetrical

Polar Molecule
Non-Polar Molecule
Non-Polar Molecule

71
 Is it Polar?
HCl HF H2O

Yes
Yes Yes

NH3

No
Yes CO2 No
CCl4

72
Linea
r Name That Shape
1
4

Tetrahedral
Trigonal
bipyramid 3
Octahedral
2

V-shape Trigonal
6 pyramidal
5 7

Trigonal
73
74
 Dipole-Dipole Bonding
Dipole-dipole interactions are electrostatic interactions
between permanent dipoles in molecules. These interactions
tend to align the molecules to increase attraction.

δ+

δ-
e.g. HCl,
chloroform - CHCl3

δ+
The slightly negative end of one
molecule will attract to the slightly
δ-
positive end of its neighbour.

75
 Boiling Point – Hydrides
Plots of boiling point of hydrides reveal trends that indicate
higher than expected boiling points of H2O, HF and NH3.

This can be explained with a stronger form of dipole-dipole

bonding - Hydrogen Bonding.

76
 Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen Bonding is the attraction
between polar molecules, in which
hydrogen H is bound to a Period 2 Ice
electronegative atom: N, O or F. (not Cl)
Molecules can get closer packed
together, increasing the strength.

It is not a true bond but a strong

intermolecular attraction. e.g. HF,
NH3, H2O, CH3OH.

Water’s unusual properties of

relatively high B.Pt, high surface
tension, and expansion upon
freezing can each be explained
by hydrogen bonding. 77
When a molecular substance boils
Heating covalent molecular compounds will break the weaker
intermolecular bonds first.

For water, the intermolecular hydrogen bonds will break when

heated to 100°C. At much higher temperatures, the covalent
O-H bonds within the water molecules will break. This takes
large amounts of energy and occurs at about 3000°C.

O-H Covalent Bonds

Intermolecular H-Bonds

78
 Ion-Dipole Bonding

When salt dissolves in water, the

sodium and chloride ions and the
polar water molecules are
attracted to one another by ion-
dipole interactions.
The ion-dipole bonding is strong enough to overcome
attractions within lattices. The solvent molecules surround the
ions, removing them from the crystal and forming the solution. 79
Dispersion Forces aka: Van der Waals interactions,
London forces

Non-polar molecules have no permanent dipole.

However, the electrons move around the atom and
occasionally they are unbalanced. This produces an
instantaneous dipole (temporary).
This can form temporary weak
bonds with neighbouring
molecules, called Dispersion
Forces.

E.g. He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe

F2, Cl2, O2, H2 , CH4, C2H6

Dispersion forces exist for all substances. They tend to

increase with increasing size of a molecule, due to more
electrons. 80
 Models
of Bond
i ng
Difference in EN Bond Type
0 Covalent
2 Ionic
0 < EN <2 Polar Covalent

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic

Share e- Partial transfer of e- Complete transfer 81e-
 Ionic - Covalent Range
A covalent bond with greater electron density around one of
the two atoms will produce a dipole, with a slightly more
negative and positive ends.
Denoted by the symbol: d
The difference in electronegativity
between two atoms can be used to
classify the type of bond that they
form:

Nonpolar covalent: 0 to 0.4

Polar covalent: 0.5 to 1.7
Ionic: 1.8 and greater
82
Models of Chemical Bonding
Ionic Covalent Metallic

Electron transfer Electron sharing Electron pooling 83

84
 Chemical Bonding Summary
Giant Metallic Giant Ionic Giant Covalent Molecular Structures
Network Polar Nonpolar H - bonding
Particles Atoms (Metals) Cations, anions Group 4 atoms/ Molecules with Molecules with similar Molecules with H
non-metals different E-Neg electronegative values atom bonded to
·C(diamond), SiO, values ·Bond polarities cancel E-Neg atom
·Na, K, Cu, W, Mg ·NaCl, MgO SiO2, SiC ·Dipole moment ·Symmetrical
·C(graphite) – 2D ·Asymmetrical ·H–FON

Bonding Lattice of cations in Lattice of positive Covalent bonding ·Strong covalent ·Strong covalent ·Strong covalent
sea of electrons and negative ions throughout 3-D bonding within bonding within bonding within
·Electrostatic ·Electrostatic network molecule molecule molecule
forces between forces between ·Dipole-dipole ·Weak dispersion ·H2 bonding
cations and cations and (polar) between forces between between molecules
electrons anions molecules molecules
Metallic bonding Ionic bonding Covalent bonding
Physical Prop Solid Solid Solid Liquid/Gas Liquid/Gas Liquid/Gas
Volatility Non-volatile Non-volatile Non-volatile Volatile Volatile Volatile
Melting Pt. High High Very high Very low Very low Very low
Conductivity Good conductor Poor conductor in Poor conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor Poor conductor
solid state
Good conductor in ·Only graphite
molten /aqueous conducts
85
state
·free moving e - ·free moving ions ·free moving e - ·e- not free to move ·e- not free to move ·e- not free to move
 Classification of Bonds
Arrange the substances in order of decreasing boiling
points

3 Ca Metallic 6 H2 Dispersion 1 C(diamond) Covalent

6 Ne Dispersion 4 C8H18 Dispersion 5 CO2 Dispersion
4 CH3Cl Dipole-Dipole 5 CH OH H-Bonding 6 N2 Dispersion
3
5 CCl4 Dispersion 1 C(graphite)Covalent 4 CH CH OH H-Bond
3 2
1 SiO Covalent 2 MgCO Ionic 3 Au Metallic
2 3
2 NaCl Ionic 3 Metallic
2 K SO Ionic
Na 2 4

86
Understanding Chemical Bonds

87
88