Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry-1

Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry-1

PC-101
Credit hour: 3

Dr. Marwa Rifat El-Zahry

Lecture 3:
Chemical bonding & intermolecular bonds
vDefine chemical bond.
vExplain why most atoms form chemical bonds.
vDescribe different types of bonds & their
properties.
vExamples of compounds having different types
of bonds.
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vChemical bonds join atoms together to form more
complex structures (like molecules or crystals).
vBonds can form between atoms of the same element, or
between atoms of different elements.
vThere are several types of chemical bonds which have
different properties and give rise to different structure.
vThese types include ionic, covalent, hydrogen, metallic
and co-ordination bonds.

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1. Ionic bond: It is formed between positive ions (cations) and
negative ions (anions).
v In an ionic solid, the ions arrange
themselves into a rigid crystal lattice.

v NaCl (common salt) is an example of an ionic substance.

v When ionic bonds form, there is an attractive force between
the positive cation and the negative anion. This attraction
between oppositely-charged ions is the .
v Generally, , electrons are
transferred from the metals to the non-metals. The metals
form positively-charged ions and the non-metals form
negatively-charged ions.
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qCharacteristics of ionic bonds are:
1. High melting point (solid at room temperature).
2. Hard but brittle.
3. Most of them dissolve in water.
4. Conductors of electricity when dissolved or melted.

qHow ionic bond is formed?

§ Ionic bonds form when metals and non-metals chemically
react. A metal is relatively stable if it loses electrons to form
a complete valence shell and becomes positively charged.
§ Likewise, a non-metal becomes stable by gaining electrons
to complete its valence shell and becomes negatively
charged.
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2. Covalent bond is a common type of bonding, in which
two or more atoms valence electrons more or less
equally.
• The simplest and most common type is a single bond in
which two atoms share two electrons.
• Other types include the double bond, the triple bond.

Ø Formation of covalent bond:

§ Covalent bonds form between two atoms which have
incomplete octets that is, their outermost shells have fewer
than eight electrons.

Figure (1): Diagram of a covalent

bond between hydrogen atoms.
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ü The simplest example is water (H2O). Oxygen has 6 valence
electrons (needs to be 8) and the hydrogens have 1 electron
each (need to be 2).
ü The oxygen shares 2 of its electrons with the two hydrogen
atoms, and the hydrogens share their electrons with the
oxygen.
ü The result is a covalent bond between the oxygen and each
hydrogen. The oxygen has a complete octet and the
hydrogens have the two electrons that they need.

Figure (2): Diagram of a covalent

bond between water atoms.

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 I- Single covalent bonds
§ Covalent bonds can also form between other non-metals,
for example chlorine.
§ A chlorine atom has 7 electrons in its valence shell, so it
needs 1 electron to be complete octet.
§ Two chlorine atoms can share 1 electron from each to form
a single covalent bond. They become a Cl2 molecule.

Figure (3): Diagram of a covalent bond between

chlorine atoms. 8
 II- Double covalent bonds
§ Oxygen can also form covalent bonds, however, it needs a
further 2 electrons to complete its valence shell (it has 6).
§ Two oxygen atoms must share 2 electrons from each to
complete each other’s shells, making a total of 4 shared
electrons.
§ Because twice as many electrons are shared, this is called a
double covalent bond.
§ Double bonds are than single bonds, so the
bond length is and the

Figure (4): Diagram of covalent bonds

between oxygen atoms.
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 III- Triple covalent bonds
§ Furthermore, nitrogen has 5 valence electrons (it needs a
further 3). Two nitrogen atoms can share 3 electrons from
each to make a N2 molecule, making a total of 6 shared
electrons joined by a triple covalent bond.

§ Triple bonds are stronger than double bonds than single

bonds. They have the shortest bond lengths and highest
bond energies.

Figure (5): Diagram of a

covalent bond between
nitrogen atoms.

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The factors that affect the strength of a metallic
bond include:
Ø Total number of delocalized electrons.
Ø Magnitude of positive charge held by the metal cation.
Ø Ionic radius of the cation

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Properties Attributed by Metallic Bonding:-
Metallic bonds impart several important properties to metals that
make them commercially desirable.
1. Electrical Conductivity
• Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance
to allow a charge to move through it.
• Since the movement of electrons is not restricted in the
electron sea, any electric current passed through the metal
passes through it, as illustrated below.
• When a potential difference is
introduced to the metal, the
delocalized electrons start
moving towards the positive
charge. This is the reason why
metals are generally good
conductors of electric current. 13
 2. Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of
its ability to conduct/transfer heat.
• When one end of a metallic substance is heated, the
kinetic energy of the electrons in that area increases.
These electrons transfer their kinetic energies to other
electrons in the sea by collisions.

• The the mobility of the electrons, the

.
• Due to metallic bonds, the delocalized electrons are
highly mobile, and they transfer the heat through the
metallic substance by colliding with other electrons.

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 3. Malleability and Ductility
• When an ionic crystal (such as sodium chloride crystal) is
beaten with a hammer, it shatters into many smaller
pieces. This is because the atoms in the crystals are held
together in a rigid lattice that is not easily deformed.
• In the case of metals, the sea of electrons in the metallic
bond enables the deformation of the lattice.
• Therefore, when metals are beaten with a hammer, the
rigid lattice is deformed and not fractured. This is why
metals can be beaten into thin sheets. Since these lattices
do not fracture easily, metals are said to be highly ductile.

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 Types of alloys

Atoms of one metal are Different metal occupies

substituted by atoms of interstitial spaces (holes)
another metal in the lattice structure
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 4. Coordinate bond
q Coordinate bond is a sharing of lone pair of electrons from
one atom called donor (Lewis base) to another atom called
acceptor (Lewis acid).

q Lewis acid: electron pair acceptor e.g. H+, AlCl3, BF3.

q Lewis base: electron pair donor e.g. compounds containing
heteroatoms (O, S, N) e.g. NH3, H2O

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5. Hydrogen bond (HB)
Ø It is a weak attachment between hydrogen atom linked
covalently to a strongly electronegative atom (F, N, S, O)
and another electronegative atom in the same or
different molecules.
Ø To distinguish from a normal covalent bond, a hydrogen
bond is represented by a broken line (- - - - -).

Figure (6): Hydrogen

bonding in water molecules
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qThe strength of HB is quite low about 2-10
kcal/mol as compared to a covalent bond strength
50–100 kcal/mol.
qThe strength of NaCl bond is 787 kcal/mol
Conditions for Hydrogen Bonding
1. Hydrogen should be linked to a highly
electronegative element.
2. The size of the electronegative element must be
small.
Note: The greater the electro negativity and smaller
the size, the stronger is the hydrogen bond.

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 Types of hydrogen bonds
1- Intermolecular hydrogen bond
q It refers to hydrogen bond between same or different
atoms through different molecules.
q It occurs when hydrogen atom locates between two
electronegative atoms (N, S, O).

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2- Intramolecular hydrogen bond

Structure of o-nitrophenol with intramolecular hydrogen

bonding 23
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q Molecular formula: Formula that describes the number and
types of atoms in a single molecule or compound e.g.
molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6.

q Empirical formula: Formula that indicates simplest ratio of

atoms in whole molecule e.g. empirical formula of glucose is
CH2O.

q Structural formula: Formula that indicates the position of

atoms in space (connectivity of atoms).

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v Definition: the field of chemistry that is concerned with
relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical
reaction and how to calculate these quantities.
v Stoichiometric ratio or molar ratio: ratio that used to calculate
amount of reactants and products in balanced chemical
equation.
CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O

For above equation, the following ratios can be observed:

1 mol CH4: 1 mol CO2 1 mol CH4: 2 mol H2O
1 mol CH4: 2 mol O2 2 mol O2: 1 mol CO2
2 mol O2: 2 mol H2O

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Q1 A bond formed between metal and non-metal, is called ……..
A- metallic C- ionic
B- co-ordinate D- hydrogen
Q2 Which sentence is true about the bonds?
A- Single bond is stronger than double.
B- Double bond is shorter than triple bond.
C- Triple bond is shorter than single bond.
D- All bonds are equal in strength and length.
Q3 The bond between two oxygen atoms is .........
A- ionic bond B- single covalent bond C- double covalent bond
Q4 The intermolecular H. bond is stronger than intramolecular H. bond.
A- True B- False
Q5 Complete: -
1- The simplest ratio of atoms in whole molecule is ……………..
2- The ratio that used to calculate amount of reactants and products in
balanced chemical equation is ..............
3- The electron pair acceptor atom is called .............. 30
Q6 What kind of alloy presented in this figure?
A- pure C- mixture
B- substitutional D- interstitial
Q7 Which of these bonds is called “one way bond”?
A- metallic C- ionic
B- co-ordinate D- covalent

Q8 All of these are substitutional alloys, Except .......

A- bronze B- steel C- brass D- All are true

Q9 A bond that represented as a broken line is ........... bond.

A- co-ordinate C- ionic
B- hydrogen D- covalent

Q10 Give reason of the following sentences:-

1- Metals are good conductors.
2- o-Dihydroxybenzen has higher boiling point than p-Dihydroxybenzen.

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