Lesson 4: CHEMICAL BONDING

Introduction

This year, man has been startled with the pandemic caused by CoVid – 19 virus. Everybody has been
challenged to undertake protective measures to prevent the spread of the virus. Various chemical
substances produced through chemical technology became an in-demand commodity for the public.
The supply of antiseptics like alcohol, sanitizers, bath soaps and medicine like vitamins to boost the
immune system have abruptly decreased causing public alarm. These various chemical substances
are produced from chemical interaction of atoms and the individual atoms in these compounds are
held together by chemical bonds.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
 differentiate the properties of the different kinds of bonds;
 illustrate the Lewis dot structure of compounds;
 write and name the chemical formula of the compounds;
 calculate the oxidation number used by an element in the compound;
 determine the empirical and molecular formula of the compound.

Activating Prior Learning

Watch the Music video of the song “Share the Love” by Daniel Padilla, Kathryn Bernardo, Elmo
Magalona and Janella Salvador (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oeu7W-fTxmk) and make
reflection on the message of the song.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Presentation of Content

Every atom of a substance is interacting with other atoms to achieve stability. The valence electrons
are responsible to achieve this goal during chemical interaction to form various compounds. The
atoms in the compounds are held together by a strong attractive force called chemical bonds.
There are three different types of bonds entered into by atoms during compound formation. These are
ionic bond, covalent bond and metallic bond.

Ionic Bond
Ionic bond is the result of the transfer of electrons from one substance (metal – electron donor) to
another substance (non – metal – electron acceptor). When a metal loses an electron, it yields a
positive charge (cation), and when non – metal gains an electron, it yields negative charge (anion).
These oppositely charge particles will then attract each other and eventually form a compound. In
this case, because the bond is formed from opposite charges, ionic bond is also known as
electrovalent bond. The compound formed from the bonding of a metal and non – metal is known as
ionic compounds.

Examples:

1
 1. The bond between 11Na and 17Cl. Na is a metal (electron donor) and Cl is a non – metal
(electron acceptor). The electron configuration of 11Na is 1s2 2s22p6 3s1. It has valence
electron equal to 1 and therefore, can lose 1 electron to become Na + to have 8 electrons in its
outermost energy level (octet rule). On the other hand, 17Cl has electron configuration of 1s 2
2s22p6 3s23p5. It has valence electrons equal to 7 and should gain 1 electron to become Cl - to
gain stability according to octet rule.

Note: Because Na lost only 1 e- and Cl gained only 1 e-, therefore, the atomic ratio of the compound
formed is 1:1, that is why the formula of the compound formed is NaCl.

2. Formation of the compound of Mg and I

Mg belongs to IIA, therefore it has valence electrons equal to 2 and can lose 2 e- to achieve
stability. I belongs to VIIA, therefore, its valence electron is equal to 7 and needs 1 e- to have
8 e- in its outer energy level to achieve stability.

Note: 1 atom of Mg can lose 2 e- and 1 atom of I can gain 1 e-, therefore, it needs 2 atoms of I to gain
the 2 e- lost by Mg to form MgI2.

3. Formation of K and O compound

Note: Oxygen belongs to Group VIA, it has 6 valence electrons and needs 2 more electrons to be
stable according to octet rule. On the other hand, K belongs to IA and has 1 valence electron.
It can donate 1 electron to become stable. So, it needs 2 atoms of K to donate the number of
electrons required by O to become stable. So therefore, the formula of the compound is K2O.

4. Formation of Al and S compound

Note: Al belongs to family IIIA and has 3 ve-, therefore it can donate 3 e- to achieve a charge of 3+ to
become stable. On the other hand, S belongs to family VIA and has 6 ve -, so it needs 2 e- to
have 8 e- in its outermost energy level. Therefore, 2 atoms of Al is required to fulfill the
requirements for electrons of 3 atom of S to achieve stability. So the formula of its compound
is Al2S3.

2
Another way of predicting the formula of the compound is criss – crossing method. This is
accomplished by exchanging the charge of the atoms and becomes subscript in its formula.(Note:
The charges of each element is reflected on the periodic table.
Example:
1. Formula of the compound of Na and Cl

Note: If the charge is 1, you don’t need to write it as subscript in the chemical formula of the
compound.

2. Formula of the compound of Mg and I

3. Formula of the compound of K and O

4. Formula of the compound of Ca and S

Note: If the subscript is divisible with each other, reduce it to lowest term.

5. Formula of the compound of Ba and N

Covalent Bond
Covalent bond is the result of sharing of electrons by 2 or more non – metals to achieve stability.
The compound formed from this bonding type is known as covalent compound. Because covalent
compound is composed of both non – metals, the compound is classified as molecule. Covalent
bonds may classified as single bond ( - ), double bond ( = ) or triple bond ( ≡ ). Single bond consists
of 2 shared electrons, double bond consists of 4 shared electrons and triple bond consists of 6 shared
electrons. The following are examples of covalent bonding.
1. Bond formed between O and F

Note: Based on the structure, the formula of the molecule is OF2

2. Bond formed between H and O to form water molecule

Note: H belongs to Group IA of the periodic table, therefore, it has 1 valence electron and is
expected to share 1 electron to become stable. H is the only element in group IA that is
capable of sharing electrons to other non – metals to achieve stability. O on the other hand,
belongs to group VIA and has 6 valence electrons and needs 2 electrons to have 8 electrons
in its outermost energy level. Its molecular formula is H2O.
3
 3. Bond formed between N and H

Therefore, the molecular formula formed form the bonding of N and H is NH3.

4. Compound formed by C and O

5. Compound formed by S and O

or

Note: Based on the above structure of SO 2, any of these structures can be a correct Lewis Dot
structure of SO2. Each of these structures is called resonance structure of SO2. Resonance
structure is one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot be
represented accurately by only one Lewis structure. The double-headed arrow indicates that
the structures shown are resonance structures. The term resonance itself means the use of two
or more Lewis structures to represent a particular molecule.

6. Compound formed by H, C and N

Metallic Bond
The chemical bonding that holds the bulk of atoms of a metal together is called metallic bond.
Metallic bonds are formed from the attraction between mobile electrons (sea of electrons) and fixed,
positively charged metallic atoms. The unusual strength and durability of metals together with some
of its physical properties like conductivity, malleability, ductility, luster, melting point and heat
capacity are explained by metallic bonding that occurs among its atoms. The copper used in
electrical wirings and aluminum foil are just few of the examples that demonstrate metaling bonding
4
in metals. Another application of metallic bonding is the production of alloys. Alloy is the
combination of 2 or more metals and is performed to improve the quality of metals. The following
illustrates metallic bonding based on Paul Drüde "sea of electrons" metallic bonding theory. To
understand better the mechanism of metallic bonding, watch the simulation at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bi0rUNV8mEw

The Electron Sea Model: Positive atomic nuclei (orange circles) surrounded by a sea of delocalized
electrons (yellow circles).

Lewis Dot Structure

Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs are shown
either as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on
individual atoms. Only valence electrons are shown in a Lewis structure. It is composed of the
symbol of the element which represent its nucleus, dots which represent the number of valence
electron of the atom and dash which represent the bonded electrons in the molecule. A dash (-) is
equivalent 2 shared electrons, (=) is equivalent to 4 shared electrons and (≡) is equivalent to 6 shared
electrons. A pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding is called a lone pair. Here are the basic
steps employed in writing Lewis structure of a molecule.
1. Write the skeletal structure of the compound, using chemical symbols and placing bonded
atoms next to one another. For simple compounds, this task is fairly easy. For more complex
compounds, we must either be given the information or make an intelligent guess about it. In
general, the least electronegative atom occupies the central position. Hydrogen and fluorine
usually occupy the terminal (end) positions in the Lewis structure.
2. Count the total number of valence electrons present.
a. For a neutral compound like H2O, the total number of valence electrons is 8. (For H, H
has 1 valence electron and there are 2 atoms of H in the formula H 2O, so, 2 x 1 = 2. For
O, there are 6 valence electron of O and there is just 1 atom of O in the formula H 2O, so,
6 x 1 = 6. Adding 2 to 6 equals 8).
b. For polyatomic anions, add the number of negative charges to that total. (For example,
for the CO32- ion we add two electrons because the 2- charge indicates that there are two
more electrons than are provided by the atoms. For C, 4 x 1 =4. For O, 6 x 3 = 18. Adding
4 to 18 equals 22 but add 2 here because of the charge 2-. Therefore, for the entire CO 3 2-,
it has 24 valence electrons.)
c. For polyatomic cations, we subtract the number of positive charges from this total. (Thus,
for NH4+ we subtract one electron because the 1+ charge indicates a loss of one electron
from the group of atoms. For N, 1 x 5 = 5. For H, 1 x 4 = 4. Adding 5 to 4 gives 9 but
subtract 1 because of the 1+ charge in NH 4+. Therefore total valence electron in NH 4+ is
8.)

5
 3. Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and each of the surrounding atoms.
Complete the octets of the atoms bonded to the central atom. (Remember that the valence
shell of a hydrogen atom is complete with only two electrons.) Electrons belonging to the
central or surrounding atoms must be shown as lone pairs if they are not involved in bonding.
The total number of electrons to be used is that determined in step 2.
4. After completing steps 1–3, if the central atom has fewer than eight electrons, try adding double
or triple bonds between the surrounding atoms and the central atom, using lone pairs from the
surrounding atoms to complete the octet of the central atom.

Illustrative examples:
Example 1. Illustrate the Lewis structure for H2O molecule.
H O H
Based on rule #1, H occupies the terminal position.
1. The total number of valence electron of the molecule is 8. H has 2 atoms in the molecule
and its valence electron is 1. So 2 x 1 = 2. For O, there is just 1 atom of O in the molecule
and it has 6 valence electrons. So I x 6 = 6. Add up the valence electrons, 2 = 6 = 8.

2. Connect central atom with the attached atoms using single bonds.

3. Check whether octet rule is obeyed by counting the number of valence electrons around
the atom. Note: H is stable at having 2 valence electrons only in a molecule.

Note: If each atom in the molecule obeys the octet rule, the Lewis structure is acceptable. For H 2O, H
obeys octet rule by having 2 e-. Therefore, the acceptable Lewis structure for H2O is:

Example 2. Illustrate the Lewis structure of CO

Therefore, the acceptable Lewis structure of CO is:

Example 3. Illustrate the Lewis structure of CH3OH

Example 4. Illustrate the Lewis structure of C2H4.

6
Naming Chemical Formula
A chemical formula is an expression showing the chemical composition of a compound in terms of
the symbols for the atoms of the elements involved. If the chemical formula of the compound
constitutes 2 different atoms, the compound is classified as binary compound. On the other hand, if
the formula constitutes three or more different atoms, the compound is classified as ternary
compound.

Naming Ionic Compounds

A. Binary Compound – compound composed of a metal and a non – metal.
Rule: Name the metal followed by the name of the non – metal with -ide ending.
Name of non – metals
Carbon – carbide fluorine – fluoride
Silicon – silicide chlorine – chloride
Nitrogen – nitride iodine – iodide
Oxygen – oxide bromine – bromide
Phosphorus – phosphide Tellurium – telluride
Sulfur – sulfide hydrogen – hydride

Illustrative examples:
What is the name of the following chemical formula of binary compounds:
Chemical Name of the Name of the Non – metal with -ide Name of the formula
Formula metal ending
NaCl sodium chloride Sodium chloride
K2O potassium oxide Potassium oxide
MgS magnesium sulfide Magnesium sulfide
Ca3N2 Calcium nitride Calcium nitride
AlBr3 Aluminum bromide Aluminum bromide
Ba3P2 Barium Phosphide Barium phosphide

B. Ternary Compounds – combination of a metal with a polyatomic ion

Rule: Name the metal followed by the name of the polyatomic ion.
Illustrative examples:
What is the name of the following chemical formula of ternary compounds:
Chemical Name of the
Name of the metal Name uof the formula
formula polyatomic ion
Na2SO4 sodium sulfate Sodium sulfate
K2C2O4 potassium oxalate Potassium oxalate
Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide Aluminum hydroxide
Ca3(AsO4)2 calcium arsenate Calcium arsenate
LiNO2 lithium nitrite Lithium nitrite
Mg(C2H3O2)2 magnesium acetate Magnesium acetate
RbClO4 rubidium Perchlorate Rubidium perchlorate

List of ions
A. Cation
Name Formula Name Formula
ammonium NH4+ Lead (II) or plumbous Pb 2+
Hydronium H3O+ Lead (IV) or plumbic Pb4+
Copper (I) or cuprous Cu+ Mercury (I) or mercurous Hg+
Copper (II) or cupric Cu2+ Mercury (II) or mercuric Hg2+
Cobalt(II) or cobaltous Co2+ Nickel (II) or nickelous Ni2+
7
Cobalt (III) cobaltic Co3+ Nickel (III) or nickelic Ni3+
Iron (II) or ferrous Fe2+ Tin (II) or stannous Sn2+
Iron (III) or ferric Fe3+ Tin (IV) or stannic Sn4+

B. Anions
Name Formula Name Formula
acetate C2H3O2 - metaborate BO3 -
aluminate AlO2 - metaphosphate PO3 -
argenticyanide Ag(CN)2 - metasilicate SiO3 2-
arsenate AsO4 3- molybdate MoO4 2-
arsenite AsO3 3- nitrate NO3 -
benzoate C7H5O2 - nitrite NO2 -
bicarbonate HCO3 - orthosilicate SiO4 4-
bismuthate BiO4 3- oxalate C2O4 2-
bisulfate HSO4 - perchlorate ClO4 -
bisulfite HSO3 - periodate IO4 -
Borate BO3 3- permanganate MnO4 -
bromate BrO3 - peroxide O2 2-
carbonate CO3 2- phosphate PO4 3-
chlorate ClO3 - phosphite PO3 3-
chlorite ClO2 - plumbite PbO2 2-
chromate CrO4 2- pyroarsenate As2O7 4-
cyanate CNO- pyrophosphate P2O7 4-
cyanide CN- silicate SiO3 2-
dichromate Cr2O7 2- stannate SnO3 2-
ferricyanide Fe(CN)6 3- stannite SnO2 2-
ferrocyanide Fe(CN)6 4- sulfate SO4 2-
formate HCOO- sulfite SO3 2-
hydroxide OH- tartrate C4H4O6 2-
hypobromite BrO- tetraborate B4O7 2-
hypochlorite ClO - tetrathionate S4O6 2-
iodate IO3 - thiocyanate SCN-
iodite IO2 - thiosulfate S2O3 2-
manganate MnO4 2- Zincate ZnO2 2-
metaarsenite AsO2 -

Writing chemical formula of a ternary compound

The formula of a ternary compound can be obtained using a criss – cross method. This involves the
exchange of charges by the cation and the anion component of the compound which then become the
subscript in the formula of the compound.
Illustrative examples:
1. The formula of the compound formed from Na+ and OH-

Note: if the subscript in the formula is 1, you don’t need to write it on the formula.
2. Formula formed by Ca2+ and NO3 -

8
Note: During criss – crossing, the formula of the anion should never change. Use parenthesis to
separate subscript 3 from the anion NO3 and 2, the subscript that applies to the entire NO3 molecule.
3. Formula formed by Al3+ and SO4 2-

4. Formula formed by Magnesium ion and dichromate ion

5. Formula formed by Barium ion and ferrocyanide ion

Naming Formula of a ternary compound

Rule: Name the metal (cation) followed by the name of the polyatomic ion (anion).
Illustrative examples:
Formula Name of cation Name of Name of the
(metal) anion(polyatomic formula
ion)
NaOH sodium hydroxide Sodium
hydroxide
Ca(NO3)2 calcium nitrate Calcium nitrate
Al2(SO4)3 aluminum sulfate Aluminum
sulfate
MgCr2O7 magnesium dichromate Magnesium
dichromate
Ba2Fe(CN)6 barium ferrocyanide Barium
ferrocyanide

9
Activity 1
Write the formula formed by the following ions and name the formula of the compound.
Formula
anion
cation NO2- PO33- AsO43- ClO- PbO22- ZnO22-
Ag+
Name
Zn2+
Name
Hg2+
Name
Ni3+
Name
Si4+
Name
Fe3+
Name

Naming compounds of metals with multiple charges or oxidation state or number

Look at the charge or oxidation number of some of the metals found at the transition state of the
periodic table, they have multiple charge or oxidation number. There are two systems of naming
these compounds, the classical -ous and -ic ending and stock system or the systematic or the IUPAC
system. In the classical -ous and -ic ending, -ous ending is given to the compound with the metal
having lower oxidation number while -ic ending is given to the metal having higher oxidation
number. On the other hand, in the stock system or systematic or IUPAC, the charge of the metal is
indicated by the Roman mineral enclosed with a parenthesis.
Illustrative examples
Metal with Formula
multiple
oxidation
Number
catio anion
2- 2-
O CO3 SO42-
Fe2+ FeO FeCO3 FeSO4
Name Ferrous oxide Ferrous carbonate Ferrous sulfate
Iron (II) oxide Iron (II) carbonate Iron (II) sulfate
Fe3+ Fe2O3 Fe2(CO3)3 Fe2(SO4)3
Name Ferric oxide Ferric carbonate Ferric sulfate
Iron (III) oxide Iron (III) carbonate Iron (III) sulfate
Cu+ Cu2O CuCO3 Cu2SO4
Name Cuprous oxide Cuprous carbonate Cuprous sulfate
Copper (I) oxide Copper (I) carbonate Copper (I) sulfate
Cu2+ CuO CuCO3 CuSO4
Name Cupric oxide Cupric carbonate Cupric sulfate
Copper (II) oxide Copper (II) carbonate Copper (II) sulfate
Pb2+ PbO PbCO3 PbSO4
Name Plumbous oxide Plumbous carbonate Plumbous sulfate
Lead (II) oxide Lead (II) carbonate Lead (II) sulfate
Pb4+ PbO2 Pb(CO3)2 Pb(SO4)2
Name Plumbic oxide Plumbic carbonate Plumbic sulfate
Lead (IV) oxide Lead (IV) carbonate Lead (IV) sulfate

10
Naming Covalent compounds
Covalent compounds are compounds formed from the bonding of 2 or more non – metals.
Rule: Name the first element of the formula (element with lower electronegativity) followed by the
name of the second element with – ide ending. If subscript is present in the formula, use the
following prefix to indicate the number of atoms in the formula.
1 – mono 6 – hexa
2 – di 7 – hepta
3 – tri 8 – octa
4 – tetra 9 – nona
5 – penta 10 – deca
Note: If there is just 1 atom in the first element of the covalent compound, there is no need to use the
prefix mono. For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is sometimes omitted. For example, N 2O4 may
be called dinitrogen tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide.
Illustrative examples
CO – carbon monoxide N2O4 – dinitrogen tetroxide
CO2 – carbon dioxide SO2 – sulfur dioxide
CCl4 – carbon tetrachloride P2O5 – diphosphorus pentoxide
OF2 – oxygen difluoride P4O10 – tetraphosphorus decoxide

SF6 – sulfur hexafluoride CS2 – carbon disulfide

Note: There are some covalent compounds that are give special names known as common name.
Examples are H2O for water and NH3 for ammonia. The IUPAC name of these compounds are
dihydrogen monoxide for H2O and nitrogen trihydride for NH3.

Naming acids
Acids are compounds that can change blue litmus paper to red, has sour taste and can give burning
sensation. It is a substance that increases the hydronium ion (H 3O+) concentration in water solution.
The presence of the atom Hydrogen (H) in front of the formula is an indication that the compound is
acid. There are 2 types of acids. The binary acid and the oxoacid. Binary acid just contains 2
elements and should contain the symbol (aq) as subscript, which mean aqueous, in the formula.
Oxoacids contain the Hydrogen and oxy anion. Oxyanion is any polyatomic anion that contains
Oxygen. Examples include, NO3 -, NO2 –, PO4 3-, PO3 3-, SO4 2-, SO3 2- etc.
A. Naming Binary acid – Hydrogen + non – metal
Rule: Name hydrogen as “hydro” followed by the name of the attached non – metal with -ic ending
and acid as last part of its name.
Examples:
H2S(aq) – hydrosulfuric acid H3P(aq) – hydrophosphoric acid
H3N(aq) – hydronitric acid HF(aq) – hydrofluoric acid
H2C(aq) – hydrocarbonic acid HCl(aq) – hydrochloric acid
11
 B. Naming oxoacids – Hydrogen + oxyanion
Rule: Name the oxyanion that is present in the compound. If the name ends with -ate, change it to -ic
ending, and if the name of the oxyacid ends with -ite, change it to -ous ending. End the name with
the word acid.
Illustrative examples
Formula Name of
oxyanion
H2CO3 carbonate Carbonic acid

H2SO3 sulfite Sulfurous acid

H3AsO4 arsenate Arsenic acid

H2C2O4 oxalate Oxalic acid

HC2H3O2 acetate Acetic acid

H2PbO2 plumbite Plumbous acid

Determination of oxidation number

Oxidation number, also called oxidation state refers to the total number of electrons that an atom
either gains or loses in order to form a chemical bond with another atom.
Rule in determining the oxidation number used by an element in a compound:
1. Assign the oxidation number of each element in the compound.
a. All elements belonging to 1A has 1+, IIA has 2+, IIIA has 3+, VA has 3-, VIA has 2- and
VIIA has 1- oxidation number.
b. Oxygen is always 2- EXCEPT in peroxide where it takes 1- oxidation number.
c. Hydrogen is always 1+ EXCEPT for hydride where it takes 1- oxidation number.
2. The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of a neutral compound is always equal to zero. A
neutral compound is any compound that does not carry a charge.
3. The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of polyatomic ion or a radical is equal to its net
charge. A radical is a group of atoms that carry a charge. Examples are PO 3 3-, CrO4 2-, IO3 -,
MnO4 2-, NO3 -, SO4 2-, etc.
Illustrative examples:
1. What is the oxidation number used by S in H2SO4?

12
2. What is the oxidation number used by C in ammonium acetate, NH4C2H3O2?

3. What is the oxidation number of arsenic in Magnesium arsenate?

4. What is the oxidation number used by Cr in Cr2O7 2-?

5. What is the oxidation number of Carbon in ferrocyanide ion?

13
Note: The charge of Fe is 2+ because the ion is ferrocyanide. If the ion is ferricyanide, it should be
3+.
Activity: Determine the oxidation number of the underlined symbol of the element in the compound.
Show complete solution
1. Na3PO3
2. Al2(MoO4)3
3. Pb(NO3)4
4. Fe3(BiO4)2
5. Zn(ClO2)2
6. C4H4O6 2-
7. Determine the oxidation number of Arsenic in calcium pyroarsenate.

Determination of Empirical and Molecular formula

Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound while molecular formula is the actual
formula for a molecule. Always remember that all empirical formula can be a molecular formula but
not all molecular formula can be an empirical formula.
Step in Determining Empirical Formula
1. Determine the mass of the individual component of the compound. (Note: if percent
composition is given, convert it directly to mass in grams.)
2. Determine the number of moles of the individual component of the compound.

3. Get the mole ratio by dividing the individual mole of the component with the computed
lowest number of moles among the components of the compound.
4. The mole ratio becomes the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms in the formula of the
compound which is called the empirical formula.
Note: if the computed mole ratio is not a whole number, you may round -off to the nearest whole
number or multiply it with a number that gives you a product that is a whole number. Example, if the
decimal part of the computed mole ratio is 0.01 to 0.15 and 0.9 to 0.99, round – off to nearest whole
number. But if the decimal part is 0.25, multiply it by 4, if 0.33, multiply it by 3 and if 0.5, multiply
it by 2.
Illustrative examples
1. A sample of a compound contains 1.52 g of nitrogen (N) and 3.47 g of oxygen (O). 1. What
is the empirical formula of the compound? 2. What is the empirical mass of the compound?

14
You may follow this route to arrive at empirical formula

1. a. Mass of the component

N = 1.52 g
O = 3.47 g

mass
a. Mole – use the formula n =
atomic mass
1.52 g
For N: n = 14 g/mole = 0.109 mol lower number of mole

3.47 g
For O: n= = 0.217 mole
16 g /mole
b. Mole ratio:
0.109 mole
For N: =1
0.109 mole
0.217 mole
For O: =2
0.109 mole
Therefore the empirical formula is NO2
2. Empirical ass
N = 1 x 14 g = 14 g/mol
O = 2 x 16 g = 32 g/mol
46 g/mol empirical mass
Example 2. Determine the empirical formula and empirical mass of the compound that contains
40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3% oxygen.
40 g
C = 40.0% = 40.0 g n= = 3.33 mole Lowest #
12 g /mole
of mole
6.7 g
H = 6.7% = 6.7 g n= = 6.7 mole
1 g /mole
53.3 g
O = 53.3% = 53.3 g n= = 3.33 mole
16 g /mole
3.33 mole
C= =1
3.33 mole
Therefore, the Empirical
6.7 mole Formula (EF) is CH2O
H= =2
3.33 mole
3.33 mole
O= =1
3.33 mole
C = 1 x 12 g/mol = 12 g/mol
Therefore, the Empirical
H = 2 x 1 g/mol = 2 g/mol Mass (EM) 30 g/mol
O = 1 x 16 g/mol = 16 g/mol
30 g/mole

15
Example 3. What is the empirical formula for a compound containing 26.57% potassium, 35.36%
chromium, and 38.07% oxygen?
26.57 g
K = 26.57% = 26.57 gn = = 0.681 mole
39 g /mole
35.67 g
Cr = 35.67% = 35.67 g n= = 0.686 mole
52 g /mole
38.07 g
O = 38.07% = 38.07 gn =
16 g /mole
= 2.379 mole
0.681 mole
K= =1
0.681 mole
0.686 mole
Cr = = 1.007 = 1
0.681 mole
2.379 mole
O= = 3.49 = 3.5
0.681 mole

Therefore: EF = KCrO3.5 but you can not round – off 3.5 but rather, multiple this by 2 to obtain a
whole number.
Therefore, (KCrO3.5)2 becomes K2Cr2O7, the empirical formula of the compound.
Determination of Molecular Formula
molecular mass
Molecular formula or MF =
empirical mass
(EF)
Example 1.
A major textile dye manufacturer developed a new yellow dye. The dye has a percent composition of
75.95% C, 17.72% N, and 6.33% H by mass with a molecular mass of about 240 g/mol. Determine
the molecular formula of the dye.
75.95 g
C = 75.95% = 75.95 g n = = 6.329 mole
12 g /mole
17.72 g
N = 17.72% = 17.72 gn = = 1.266 mole
14 g/mole
6.33 g
H = 6.33% = 6.33 g n= = 6.33 mole
1 g /mole
6.329 mole
C= = 4.999 = 5.0
1.266 mole
Therefore, the Empirical
1.266 mole Formula is C5NH5
N= = 1.0
1.266 mole
6.33 mole
H= = 5.0
1.266 mole
C = 5 x 12 g/mol = 60 g/mol
Therefore, the Empirical
N = 1 x 14 g/mol = 14 g/mol Mass = 79 g/mol
H = 5 x 1 g/mol = 5 g/mol
79 g/mole
molecular mass
MF =
empirical mass
(EF)
240 g /mol
=
79 g/mole
(C5NH5) Therefore, the Molecular
Formula = C15N3H15
= 3 (C5NH5)
MF = C15N3H15
Example 2.

16
A gas sample is found to contain 39.10% carbon, 7.67% hydrogen, 26.11% oxygen, 16.82%
phosphorus, and 10.30% fluorine. If the molecular mass is 184.1 g/mol, what is the molecular
formula?
39.10 g
C = 39.10% = 39.10 g n = = 3.26 mole
12 g /mole
7.67 g
H = 7.67% = 7.67 g n= = 7.67 mole
1 g /mole
26.11 g
O = 26.11% = 26.11 gn = = 1.63
16 g /mole
16.82 g
P = 16.82% = 16.82 g n = = 0.54
31 g /mole
10.30 g
F = 10.30% = 10.30 gn = = 0.54
19 g /mole
3.26 mole
C= = 6.04 = 6.0
0.54 mole
7.67 mole
H= = 14.2 = 14
0.54 mole
Therefore, the Empirical
1.63 mole Formula is C6H14O3PF
O= = 3.02 = 3
0.54 mole
0.54 mole
P = 0.54 mole = 1

0.54 mole
F= =1
0.54 mole

C = 6 x 12 g/mol = 72 g/mol
H = 14 x 1 g/mol = 14 g/mol Therefore, the Empirical
O = 3 x 16 g/mol = 48 g/mol Mass = 184 g/mol

P = 1 x 31 g/mol = 31 g/mol
F = 1 x 19 g/mol = 19 g/mol
184 g/mol
molecular mass
MF =
empirical mass
(EF)
184.1 g /mol Therefore, the Molecular
= 184 g /mol (C6H14O3PF) Formula = C6H14O3PF

= 1 (C6H14O3PF)
= C6H14O3PF
Activity: Solve the following problems. Show complete solution.

17
 1. Peroxyacylnitrate (PAN) is one of the components of smog. It is a compound of C, H, N, and
O. If the compound contains 19.8 percent C, 2.50 percent H, 11.6 percent N and 66.1 percent
O. a. What is the empirical formula?
b. What is its molecular formula given that its molecular mass is about 120 g/mol?

2. Allicin is the compound responsible for the characteristic smell of garlic. An analysis of the
compound gives the following percent composition by mass: C = 44.4 %; H = 6.21 %; S =
39.5 %; O = 9.86 %. Calculate its empirical formula. What is its molecular formula given that
its molecular mass is about 162 g/mol?

3. Monosodium glutamate (MSG), a food-flavor enhancer, has been blamed for “Chinese
restaurant syndrome,” the symptoms of which are headaches and chest pains. MSG has the
following composition by mass: 35.51 percent C, 4.77 percent H, 37.85 percent O, 8.29
percent N, and 13.60 percent Na. What is its molecular formula if its molecular mass is about
169 g/mol?

4. Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in which the
hydrogen to oxygen ratio is 2:1. A certain carbohydrate contains 40.0 percent carbon by
mass. Calculate the empirical and molecular formulas of the compound if the approximate
molecular mass is 178 g/mol.

5. A certain metal M forms a bromide containing 53.79 percent Br by mass. What is the
chemical formula of the compound?

References
Chang, R. Chemistry.(2010). 5th ed. Mc Graw Hill Book Co.. N.Y.

Manahan, Stanley E. (1993) Fundamentals of Chemistry. London: Lewis.

Masterton and Hurley. (2004). Chemistry: Principles and Reactions. 5th ed. Thomson Learning, Inc.

Purdue University. (22002). Special Edition of General Chemistry. McGraw-Hill Primis Custom
Publishing.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Chemical_Bonding/
Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding/Metallic_Bonding
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-metallic-bond-definition-properties-examples.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/oxidation-number

18