General Chemistry I Student Learning Guide Yllana Bay View College

MODULE 2 CHEMICAL BONDS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• apply the octet rule to predict the charges on the cations and anions in ionic
compounds;
• describe the electron transfer between atoms to form ionic compounds;
• draw the Lewis formulas of ionic and covalent bonds;
• show electron-dot structures of molecules with multiple bonds;
• describe sharing of electrons between atoms to form polar covalent and
coordinate covalent bonds;
• use electronegative values to classify a bond as ionic, covalent, or polar
covalent;
• explain the bonding of molecules using the concept of resonance;
• explain the exceptions to the octet rule;
• explain the physical properties of metals using the theory of metallic bonding;
and
• summarize the characteristics of ionic and covalent compounds, covalent
molecules, and metals.

1.1. LEWIS SYMBOL AND THE OCTET RULE

In 1916, Gilbert Newton Lewis 91875-1946), an American chemist, explained that the
electron configuration of noble gases prevent them from combining with other elements.
The filled valence energy levels of noble gases make them stable and therefore not
reactive. Helium has an electron configuration of 1s 2 while all other noble gases have a
valence configuration of ns2p6. He, Ne, and Ar exist as single atoms in the solid, liquid, and
gaseous states. Compounds of Kr and Xe have been prepared under forced conditions
involving the inner d electrons.

The bonding theory of Lewis is based on the following fundamentals ideas:

1. Electrons, especially the valence electrons, are involved in bonding.
2. There are cases when electrons are transferred from one atom to another to
form cations and anions. Oppositely charged ions attract each other through
electrostatic forces called ionic bonds.
3. In other cases, two or more electrons are shared between atoms. This sharing
of electrons is called a covalent bond.
4. Electrons are transferred or shared in a way that each atom acquires a stable
noble-gas configuration, which is an eight-valence shell electron or an octet.

A Lewis symbol or dot structure/diagram consists of a chemical symbol to represent

the nucleus and inner electrons, with dots placed around the symbol tor represent the
valence electrons. It is used for representative elements or Group A elements. The Lewis
structures are not used to show the shapes of molecules. They are used to describe atoms
that are bonded together and the kinds of bonds involved.

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Show how the electrons are transferred and the bond is formed when Na reacts with S.

1.2 IONIC BONDING

An ionic bond is a chemical bond that can be formed by the transfer of one or more
valence electrons from one atom or group of atoms to another. This occurs when elements
with low elecronegativities (metals) react with elements with high elecronegativities
(nonmetals) to form ionic compound called salts.

Table 6.2 Electron Configuration of Group A Elements and Their Oxidation Number
Group IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
Valence configuration S 1 S 2 Sp2 1 Sp
2 2 Sp
2 3 Sp
2 4 S2p5
Oxidation Number +1 +2 +3 -4 -2 -2 -1
+3 +2 +2 +1
+4 +5 +4 +3
+4
+5
+7

IONIC SOLIDS

Most ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature. Thus, they are
called ionic solids. The ions of an ionic solid are held by ionic bonds in a repeating pattern
called its crystal structure. In an ionic solid, each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions,
and vice versa.
Because ionic solids have cubic structures, the term molecule does not apply to
them. Their properties can be explained by their structures. Due to the strong electrostatic
forces between the cations and anions, a large amount of energy is required to break the
bonds. Hence, ionic solids have high melting and boiling points.
Ionic compounds in the solid state do not conduct electricity because the ions are
firmly bonded, but in the molten state, the cations migrate freely to the cathode and the
anions to the anode. The flow of electricity is due to the movement of ions. Ionic compound
also conduct electricity when they are dissolved in water. When surrounded by water
molecules, their ions are free to move about.
Ionic crystals like rock salt (NaCl) shatter to pieces when hammered or struck with
blunt objects because they are brittle. The blow causes some of the bonds to break and
ush like charges together. The ions repel one another and the crystals shatter.

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1.3. COVALENT BONDING

When two atoms share one or more pair of electrons, a covalent bond is formed. This
bond exists when the difference between the elecronegativities of the atoms is not enough
for an electron transfer. In the covalent bond of H 2 and Cl2, the electron pair is shared
equally between two identical atoms. Each H atom in the H2 molecule needs one electron
to attain the electron configuration of He. Both atoms acquire helium-like configuration as
long as they are bonded together by sharing
two electrons.
The sharing of a single pair of electrons
between bonded atoms produces a single
covalent bond. The electrons that are shared
between atoms are called bonding electrons
or bonding pair for a pair of electrons. Valence
electron pairs that are not involved in bonding
are called lone pairs or lone electron pairs. Bonding pairs are usually represented by dash
signs.

There are times when atoms share more than one pair of electrons to attain the
stable noble gas structure. A double covalent bond is formed when two atoms share two
electron pairs and triple covalent bond when they share three electron pairs.
The stability of a covalent of covalent
molecule is related to the strength of the
covalent bonds. The bond strength is the
energy required to break it. The bond length is
the distance between the nuclei of the atoms
involved in the bond. If we examine the data
in table 14.1, we see that as the number of
bonds between two atoms increases, the
bond becomes shorter and stronger. The bond strength of a triple bond is greater than that
of a double bond and a double bond greater than a single bond.

Covalent Solids Table 14.1 Comparison of Bond Length and Bond

Strength
Covalent solids are usually Bond Bond Length (A) Bond Strength (kJ/mol)
giant molecules in which all the C-C 1.54 348
atoms are covalently bonded to C=C 1.34 614
their neighbors which in turn are C=C 1.20 839
bonded to their neighbors and C-N 1.43 293
throughout the entire solid. A C=N 1.38 615
diamond or a sand grain is just a C=N 1.16 891
single molecule. Covalent solids Adopted from Breaking though Chemistry, pp 148
are extremely hard and have a
melting points.

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Covalent solids are used as abrasives due to their hardness and durability. Some
examples of abrasive materials are quartz (SiO2), corundum (Al2O3), emery ( Al2O2 and
Fe3O4) , silicon carbide (SiC), diamond (C) , and boron nitride (BN).
Purely covalent inorganic solids are very few. An allotrope of diamond, graphite is a
good example of a solid material with strong covalent bonds within each sheet but
relatively weak forces between the sheets. This property makes graphite a good lubricant.

Polar Covalent Bonds

A covalent bond in which electrons are shared unequally between two atoms is
called a polar covalent bond. The hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl) consists of two atoms
that need to form an octet. Chlorine has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, but the
attraction of chlorine atom for the electron is not strong enough to remove the electron
from hydrogen to form an ionic bond. Therefore, the bonding electrons of hydrogen
chloride are not equally shared in a polar molecule. The unequal sharing of electron in an
HCl molecule is represented by the symbols δ+ and δ-.
The δ+ shows that the hydrogen end of the molecule acquires a partial positive
charge and the δ- shows that the chlorine end acquires a partial negative charge. The
separation of charges in a polar covalent bond creates a dipole. The word dipole means
“two poles” which refer to the positive and negative poles that result from the separation of
charges within the molecule.

Elecronegativities of Representative Elements

Element Electronegativity Element Electronegativity
Fluorine 4.0 Copper 1.9
Oxygen 3.5 Nickel 1.9
Chlorine 3.0 Iron 1.8
Nitrogen 3.0 Silicon 1.8
Bromine 2.8 Aluminum 1.5
Carbon 2.5 Magnesium 1.2
Sulfur 2.5 Calcium 1.0
Hydrogen 2.1 Lithium 1.0
Phosphorus 2.1 Sodium 0.9
Boron 2.0 Potassium 0.8
Cobalt 1.9
Adopted from Chemistry Connections to our changing world, pp 241

Table 14.3 Electronegativity Difference and Bond Type

Electronegativity Difference Type of Bond Example
0.0 to 0.4 Covalent Cl2 (0)
0.5 to 1.9 Polar covalent HCl(0.9)
≥ 2.0 Ionic NaCl (2.1)
Adopted from Breaking Through Chemistry, pp 153

[Note: The electronegativity difference and its corresponding bond type are not absolute.
These values are arbitrary and are established for convenience. They may vary in different
texts. ]

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Some Common Covalent Molecules

Name Chemical Properties and Uses
Formula
Chlorine Greenish-yellow reactive toxic gas. It is a halogen
Cl2 used as bleaching agent and added to water as
disinfectant.
Iodine Dense gray black solid that produces violet vapors.
I2 A halogen used in tincture of iodine. It is also used
as antiseptic.
Nitrogen Colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. Air is
N2 approximately 80% nitrogen by volume. It is used in
various compounds.
Oxygen Colorless, odorless, tasteless has that is necessary for
O2 life. Air is 20% oxygen by volume.

Carbon dioxide Colorless, unreactive gas. It is exhaled in respiration

CO2 of animals and essential for plant growth.

Water Colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid. The human body

H2O is about 60% water.
Hydrogen Colorless, unstable liquid when pure. It is used as
peroxide H2O2 rocket fuel. A 3% solution is used as a bleach and
antiseptic.
Ammonia Colorless gas with pungent odor, extremely soluble
NH3 in water. Household ammonia is a solution of
ammonia in water.

Coordinate Covalent Bonds

The kind of bond carbon in carbon monoxide (CO) is different from the bond you
have seen n HCl, H2O, and NH3. The carbon atom is four electrons short of the neon
configuration while the oxygen atom is two electrons short, yet both can attain stable
configuration by coordinate covalent bonding.
A coordinate covalent bond is formed when one atom donates both bonding
electrons in a covalent bond. Coordinate covalent bonds are usually shown by using
arrows pointing to the atom receiving the bond.
Another example is the sulfur trioxide molecule. Sulfur atom with six valence electrons
lacks two more electrons to form an octet. The same is true for oxygen. For the sulfur atoms
and the three oxygen atoms to form a stable configuration by coordinate covalent bonds,
sulfur forms a double bond with one oxygen atom and donates a pair of electrons each to
the other two oxygen atoms.

Resonance

Resonance structures occur when two or more valid Lewis structures can be written
for a molecule. The more resonance structures can be drawn, the more stable the
molecule or ion.

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1.4 METALLIC BONDING

About 75% of the elements in the periodic table are metals. The bonding in metals is
called metallic bond. This consists of the attraction among positively charged metal ions for
the mobile, delocalized, or free-floating electrons. This kind of bond accounts for the
physical properties of metals. Metals are malleable so they can be hammered into different
shapes. They are ductile. Metals are good conductors of electrical current (flow of
electrons) because as electrons enter one end of a metal, an equal number leaves the
other end.

Table 6.9 Characteristic Properties of Some Solids

Type Ionic Solids Covalent Solids Molecular Solids
Metallic Solids
Composition Ions Atoms Molecular
Atoms
Kind of bond Electrostatic Covalent bonds Covalent bondsMobile electrons
forces throughout the within the
in empty orbitals
metal moleculethroughout the
solid
Melting point High High Low High (except
Hg)
Strength Strong Very strong Weak Variable, most
are malleable
and ductile
Electrical Conductor Insulators Nonconductor Good
Property when molten conductor
Solubility in Soluble Insoluble Polar molecule Insoluble
water are soluble
Adapted from General Chemistry for Engineers by James Glanville

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SELF-ASSESSMENT

A. Multiple Choice. Read carefully each statement. Choose the best answer and write only
the letter.

1. When a metal reacts with a nonmetal, usually

a. there is a sharing of electrons in the outer shells of the two electrons
b. a simple covalent bond is formed
c. a coordinate covalent bond is formed
d. positive and negative ions are formed
2. A metal can be pictured as a collection of positive ions in a “sea” of mobile
electrons. This means that
a. the bonds between ions are polar.
b. metallic bond is a nondirectional covalent bond.
c. metals are malleable. d. metals conduct their current.
3. Which of the following statements about a triple bond is true?
a. Compounds with triple bonds are not reactive.
b. Triple bonds are weaker than single and double bonds.
c. Three pairs of electrons can hold two atoms together stronger than two pairs.
d. An example of molecule with triple bond is C2H6.
4. Which of the following statements is not true about lone apir electrons?
a. They may form coordinate bonds with other atoms.
b. They may affect the polarity of a molecule
c. They are present in an H2O molecule d. none of these

For questions 5-7, refer to the following electron configurations for neutral toms.
J: 1s1 K: 1s22s1 L: 1s22s2p3 M: 1s2 N: 1s22s222p5
5. A covalent bond would be expected to form between elements
a. L and N b. K and N c. J and K d. J and N
6. What pair of electrons would likely form an ionic bond?
a. L and N b. K and N c. J and M d. J and J
7. The bond between L and N will most likely be
a. metallic bond b. ionic bond
c. coordinate covalent bond d. polar covalent bond
8. 5A chemical bond that results from a shared pool of valence electron is called a
_____ .
a. metallic bond b. ionic bond c. covalent bond d. polar covalent bond
9. When strontium atoms react with oxygen atoms, they form ________ bonds.
a. ionic b. metallic c. covalent d. polar covalent
10. The following are all properties of covalent solids, except
a. has high melting point b. good insulators
c. insoluble in water d. soluble in water

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B. Fill in the Blanks. Complete the sentence below to make it correct.

1. A ___________________ is formed when two atoms share two pairs of valence
electrons.
2. A ______________ consists of a chemical symbol to represent the nucleus and inner
electrons, with dots placed around the symbol to represent valence electrons.
3. Valence electron pairs that are not involved in bonding are called _________________
4. The ______________ is the distance between the nuclei of the atoms involved in the
bond.
5. The ___________ is the energy required to break strength of the covalent bonds.
6. A covalent bond in which electrons are shared unequally between two atoms is
called _______ .
7. A _________________ is formed when one atom donates both bonding electrons in a
covalent bond.
8. ________________ occur when two or more valid Lewis structures can be written for a
molecule.
9. The charges on the cations and anions are equal to their _________________ .
10. In an __________ compound, the sum of the total positive charge and the total
negative charge must be equal to zero.

C. Write the Lewis structure of the following compounds and classify whether each
compound is a nonpolar covalent bond, ionic bond, metallic bond or polar covalent bond.

1. BeCl2
2. CH3Cl
3. MgF2
4. K2S
5. OF2

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General Chemistry I Student Learning Guide Yllana Bay View College

MY REFLECTION 101

After finishing this module you are now going to share your insights about all the
things that you have learned and encountered in this module and during the class
discussions. Complete each statement below as honest as you can.

I have learned that___________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

However, I am still confused about ___________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

I have realized that___________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

I feel that ____________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________

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