Chemical bonding

Kossel and lewis approach

chemical bond is defined as Force of attraction which holds the constituent atoms
together in a molecule there were various approaches and theories which tried to define
this concept

Cause of chemical combination

Tendency to acquire noble gas configuration

· Pair of bonded electrons is by means of a ‘dash’ (-) usually called a ‘bond’.

· Lone pairs or ‘non-bonded’ electrons are represented by ‘dots’.
· Electrons present in the last shell of atoms are called valence electrons.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule:

· Species with odd number of electrons​: ​NO, NO​2​,

· Incomplete octet for the central atom: LiCl, BeH​2​ and BCl​3

· Expanded octet for the central atom: PF​5​, SF​6​ and H​2​SO​4

 
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Formal Charge:

· ​Formal charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons in an

isolated atom and number of electrons assigned to that atoms in Lewis structure.

· Formal charge = [Total number of valence electrons in the free atom ) - (Total
number of lone pairs of electrons) -1/2(Total number of shared electrons i.e. bonding
electrons)]

Formation of Ionic Bond:

Formation of ionic bond takes place between a metal and a non-metal by transfer of
electron.

Steps involved in formation of an ionic bond: :

Conditions required of formation of ionic bonds:

● Low I.E of cation.

● High E.A of anion.
● High lattice energy.

Covalent Bonding:

Covalent bond is formed between two non-metals by sharing of electrons.

Electron pairs which participate in bonding are called bond pairs.

Electron pairs which do not participate in bonding are called lone pairs.

There could be single, double or triple covalent bonds between two elements depending
on the number of electrons being shared

 
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VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) Theory:

The shape of the molecule is determined by repulsions between all of the electron pairs
present in the valence shell.

Order of the repulsion: Lone pair↔ Lone pair > Lone pair↔ Bond pair > Bond pair↔ Bond
pair.

Repulsion among the bond pairs is directly proportional to the bond order and
electronegativity difference between the central atom and the other atoms.

Dipole Moment:

Dipole moment of any bond is the product of the net positive or negative charge and
distance between the two charged ends, i.e., the bond length. i.e.

Dipole moment (m) = electronic charge (e) × Distance (d) Dipole moment is measured
in debye unit (D);Dipole moment of a molecule is vector addition of all the individual
bond moment

For the formation of H-bonding the molecule should contain an atom of high
electronegativity such as F, O or N bonded to hydrogen atom and the size of the
electronegative atom should be quite small.

Types of hydrogen bonding

(1) Intermolecular hydrogen bond : Intermolecular hydrogen bond is formed between

two different molecules of the same or different substances.

(i) Hydrogen bond between the molecules of hydrogen fluoride.

(ii) Hydrogen bond in alcohol and water molecules

(2) Intramolecular hydrogen bond (Chelation)

Intramolecular hydrogen bond is formed between the hydrogen atom and the highly
electroneggative atom (F, O or N) present in the same molecule. Intramolecular
hydrogen bond results in the cyclisation of the molecules and prevents their association.

 
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Consequently, the effect of intramolecular hydrogen bond on the physical properties is
negligible.

For example : Intramolecular hydrogen bonds are present in molecules such as

o-nitrophenol, o-nitrobenzoic acid, etc.

The extent of both intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonding depends on

temperature.

Effects of hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen bond helps in explaining the abnormal physical properties in several cases.
Some of the properties affected by H-bond are given below,

(1) Dissociation : In aqueous solution, hydrogen fluoride dissociates and gives the
difluoride ion ​() instead of fluoride ion . This is due to H-bonding in HF.H-bond formed
is usually longer than the covalent bond present in the molecule

(2) Association : The molecules of carboxylic acids exist as dimers because of the
hydrogen bonding. The molecular masses of such compounds are found to be double
than those calculated from their simple formulae. For example, molecular mass of acetic
acid is found to be 120.

(3) High melting and boiling point : The compounds having hydrogen bonding show
abnormally high melting and boiling points.

The high melting points and boiling points of the compounds ​({{H}_{2}}O,\ HF and
N{{H}_{3}}) containing hydrogen bonds is due to the fact that some extra energy is
needed to break these bonds.

(4) Solubility : The compound which can form hydrogen bonds with the covalent
molecules are soluble in such solvents. For example, lower alcohols are soluble in water
because of the hydrogen bonding which can take place between water and alcohol
molecules as shown

The intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases solubility of the compound in water

while, the intramolecular hydrogen bonding decreases.

(5) As the compounds involving hydrogen bonding between different molecules

(intermolecular hydrogen bonding) have higher boiling points, so they are less volatile.

(6) The substances which contain hydrogen bonding have higher viscosity and high
surface tension.

 
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(7) Explanation of lower density of ice than water and maximum density of water at
277K : In case of solid ice, the hydrogen bonding gives rise to a cage like structure of
water molecules as shown in following figure. As a matter of fact, each water molecule is
linked tetrahedrally to four other water molecules. Due to this structure ice has lower
density than water at ​273K. That is why ice floats on water. On heating, the hydrogen
bonds start collapsing, obviously the molecules are not so closely packed as they are in
the liquid state and thus the molecules start coming together resulting in the decrease of
volume and hence increase of density. This goes on upto 277K. After 277 K, the increase
in volume due to expansion of the liquid water becomes much more than the decrease in
volume due to breaking of H-bonds. Thus, after ​277K​, there is net increase of volume on
heating which means decrease in density. Hence density of water is maximum ​277K​.

Fajans rule 
The  magnitude  of  polarization  or  increased  covalent  character  depends  upon  a  number  of  factors. 
These factors are,   

(1)  Small  size  of  cation  :  Smaller  size  of  cation  greater  is  its  polarizing  power i.e. greater will be the 
covalent nature of the bond.   

(2)  Large  size  of  anion  :  Larger the size of anion greater is its polarizing power i.e. greater will be the 

covalent nature of the bond.   

(3)  Large  charge  on  either  of  the  two  ions  :  As  the  charge  on  the  ion  increases,  the  electrostatic 
attraction  of  the  cation  for  the  outer  electrons  of  the  anion  also  increases  with  the  result  its  ability 
for forming the covalent bond increases.   

(4)  Electronic  configuration  of  the  cation  :  For  the  two ions of the same size and charge, one with a 

pseudo  noble  gas  configuration (i.e. 18 electrons in the outermost shell) will be more polarizing than 
a cation with noble gas configuration (i.e., 8 electron in outer most shell).  

Metallic Bonding
Metals form Giant Metallic Lattices. These are composed of positive metal ions
surrounded by a 'sea' of Delocalised Electrons. The metal ions are attracted to the
negative electrons.

Metals tend to have high melting and boiling points because of the attraction between
the metal ions and the electrons. The more Delocalised Electrons are present (because of
a higher valency), the greater the melting and boiling points.

Metals conduct electricity because the electrons are free to move and carry charge.

Metals do not tend to dissolve, except in liquid metals, due to the strength of the
attraction between the metal ions and the electrons.

 
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Metals are Malleable and Ductile. This is because there are no direct bonds between
metal ions, so they can slide over each other.

VALENCE BOND THEORY was developed by Hiitler and London in 1927.directional

character of covalent was explained later.

It was found that 433kj of energy is required to dissociate 1 mole of hydrogen molecute
into atom .

H2(g)+433kj-->2H(g)

This theory proposes that the the