Gaseous State 

 
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​Boyles law 
For a fixed mass of gas, the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume if the 
temperature remains constant. 

Charles law 

For a fixed mass of gas, the volume is proportional to the absolute temperature if the 
pressure remains constant. 

The pressure law 

For a fixed amount of gas, the pressure is proportional to the absolute temperature if the 
volume remains constant. 

These three laws can be summarised as: 

● PV= constant 
● V/T = constant 
● P/T = constant. 

These can be combined to give:​ PV/T = constant 

The constant depends on the amount of gas, measured in moles (n). Therefore the constant 
may be written as nR, where R is the ​molar gas constant​, which has the approximate value of 
8.314JK​-1​mol​-1​. 

So we can now write an equation that shows how pressure, volume and the temperature of a 
gas varies if conditions are altered. This is known as the ideal gas equation: PV = nRT 

The units must be SI. 

● P = Pa or Nm​-2 
● V = m​3 
● N = moles 
● R = 8.314 JK​-1​mol​-1 
● T = K 

 
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If the pressure, volume and temperature of a gas change to new values because the gas has 
been processed, so that the initial pressure (P​1)​ , final pressure (P​2​) and similarly with V​1​ - 
V​2a​ nd T​1​ - T​2,​ then: 

P​1​V1​ /​ T​1​ = P​2​V2​ ​/T​2 

Finding the Relative Molecular Mass (Mr) of a gas: 

Mr = mass (g) / no. of moles = gmol​-1 

 
The kinetic theory of ideal gases makes 5 main assumptions:022 

1. The size of molecules is negligible compared with the mean intermolecular distance (i.e. 
they are widely spaced molecules). 
2. Molecules move with different speeds and in random directions. 
3. Standard laws of motion apply. 
4. Collisions between molecules 00are elastic. Translational kinetic energy is not converted 
into other forms of energy. 
5. There are no attractive intermolecular forces between molecules except during collision. 

Limitations of the theory 

Assumption 1:​ Real gaseous particles do have a volume. 

Deviations large for large gas molecules (e.g. methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia). Deviations 
small for small gases (e.g. helium and hydrogen). 

If the gas particles have a significant size compared to the total volume of the container, the volume 
of the remaining space in the container is reduced. 

The 'effective gas volume' is reduced. 

Assumption 5: ​Intermolecular forces of attraction do exist. 

The larger the intermolecular force between the molecules the more they deviate from ideal 
behaviour. Van der Waal's forces increase with molecular size - as the molecular mass increases so 
does the size of the electron cloud. 

 
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Real gases deviate from ideal behaviour at low temperatures and high pressure. 

Real gases behave more ideally at high temperature, due to the intermolecular forces been 
minimised due to an increase in the molecules' kinetic energy, and at low pressure, due to fewer 
particles per unit volume.  

In the solid state the particles are packed together in an ordered, regular pattern with strong bonds 
holding the particles together. 

When heat is applied and eventually breaks the strong bonds between the particles ​the solid melts. 

When heat is applied to a solid, its temperature rises, but when the solid begins to melt, the heat 
supplied is used to break the bonds. Hence the temperature remains constant until all the solid has 
melted. 

LIQUID 

The liquid state consists of particles in constant motion, free to pass over one another. 

Forces of attraction still exist, which prevent liquid particles from escaping, but these forces are 
much weaker than in a solid. 

If the liquid is now supplied with heat, its temperature rises, but as the liquid boils the temperature 
remains constant as this heat is used to overcome the forces between the liquid particles allowing 
them to become widely separated. 

This process is called ​vaporisation​, and the substance is now in the ​gaseous state. 

GAS 

The particles are free to move randomly in any direction, and forces between particles are weak or 
negligible. 

This steady temperature as a substance changes state can be observed for the reverse processes of 
liquefying and freezing. In these cases bonds are made, not broken during the change of state. 

 
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FORMULA GASEOUS STATE

Boyle’s law,

(At constant temperature)

Charle’s law;

Gas equation,

Ideal gas equation, PV = nRT.

Avogadro’s hypothesis;

(At const. temperature and pressure)

Dalton’s Law,

 
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Graham’s law,

Kinetic gas equation;

Root mean square velocity;

Average velocity;

Most probable velocity

U:v: = 1.0 : 0.9213 : 0.8177

: v : u = 1.0 : 1.128 : 1.234

 
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Van der Waals equation,

Critical components,