Intermolecular and

intramolecular interactions
 Introduction
Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule.
Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules.
 Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a molecule.
Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)

“Measure” of intermolecular force

Generally, intermolecular boiling point
forces are much weaker than melting point
intramolecular forces.
Hvap
Hfus
Hsub 2
 Roles of intermolecular and intramolecular forces

Physical state Solid, liquid & gas

Distillation Difference in boiling point
Extraction Difference in solubility/miscibility
Absorption Difference in solubility
Mixing
Evaporation
Crystallization
Catalysis
Drying
Chemical Bonding
Intramolecular interactions
 Valence Electrons

- The electrons involved in bonding are called valence electrons.

- Valence electrons are found in the incomplete, outermost orbital
(shell) of an atom.
- We can represent these electrons as dots around the symbol for the
element.
- These pictorial representations are called Lewis Structures
or Lewis Dot Structures.

2
 Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bond - electrostatic attraction between ions of opposite

charges (NaCl).

Covalent Bond - sharing of valance electrons between two atoms

(Cl2).

Polar covalent Bond – shared electrons are attracted by the

most electronegative atom (HCl).

Coordinate Covalent Bond – donating and sharing the donated

valance electrons (BCl3NH3)

Metallic Bond - sharing of valance electrons between several

atoms (Ag).
3
 Ionic Bonding

Ionic Bonding refers to electrostatic forces between ions,

usually a metal cation and a non-metal anion

4
 GIANT IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Cl-
Chloride ion

Na+
Sodium ion

The Na+ ion is small enough relative to a Cl¯ ion to fit in the
spaces so that both ions occur in every plane.
 GIANT IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl¯ (co-ordination number = 6)

and each Cl¯ is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination number = 6).
 GIANT IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl¯ (co-ordination number = 6)

and each Cl¯ is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination number = 6).
 Physical properties of ionic compounds
Melting point
very high A large amount of energy must be needed to overcome the
strong electrostatic attractions and separate the ions.

Strength
Very brittle Any dislocation leads to move the ionic layers and similar
ions become adjacent. The repulsion of similar ions splits
the crystal.

Electrical When solid, do not conduct electricity - ions held strongly

in the lattice. when molten or in aqueous solution conduct
electricity- the ions become mobile and conduction takes
place.

Solubility Insoluble in non-polar solvents but soluble in water.

Water is a polar solvent and stabilises the separated ions.

Much energy is needed to overcome the electrostatic attraction and separate

the ions stability attained by being surrounded by polar water molecules
compensates for this
 Physical properties of ionic compounds

Brittleness of ionic lattices

- + - + - + - +

+ - + - - + - +

If the material is deformed (e.g. bending) by applying a force, the

layers of ions move to different extents. When the ions having
similar charges become aligned, those ions repel each other. Then
the layers repel each other splitting up the crystal.
 IONIC COMPOUNDS - ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

SOLID IONIC Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ IONS ARE HELD STRONGLY TOGETHER
COMPOUNDS DO
Cl- Na+ Cl- + IONS CAN’T MOVE TO THE CATHODE
NOT CONDUCT Na+

ELECTRICITY - IONS CAN’T MOVE TO THE ANODE

Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+

MOLTEN IONIC IONS HAVE MORE FREEDOM IN A

COMPOUNDS DO Na+ Cl- LIQUID SO CAN MOVE TO THE
CONDUCT ELECTRODES

ELECTRICITY Na+
Cl-
Na+
SOLUTIONS OF IONIC Cl- DISSOLVING AN IONIC COMPOUND
COMPOUNDS IN Na+ IN WATER BREAKS UP THE
WATER DO CONDUCT STRUCTURE SO IONS ARE FREE TO
Cl- MOVE TO THE ELECTRODES
ELECTRICITY
 Octet Rule
Octet rule – Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons until
they are surrounded by eight valence electrons.

Covalent Bonds

11
Covalent Bonding results from the sharing of two electrons between
two atoms (usually non-metals) resulting in molecules

Octet Rule applies

H + H H H
number of electrons around each atom = He

Cl + Cl Cl Cl
number of electrons around each atom = Ar

Triple bond
N + N N N
number of electrons around each atom = Ne

Each Covalent Bond contains two electrons

 SIMPLE COVALENT MOLECULES

Bonding Atoms are joined together within the molecule by

covalent bonds.

Electrical Don’t conduct electricity as they have no mobile

ions or electrons

Solubility Tend to be more soluble in organic solvents than in water;

some are hydrolyzed

Boiling point Low - intermolecular forces (van der Waals’ forces) are
weak; they increase as molecules get a larger surface area

e.g. CH4 -161°C C2H6 - 88°C C3H8 -42°C

As the intermolecular forces are weak, little energy is

required to separate molecules from each other so boiling
points are low

Some boiling points are higher than expected for a given mass
because of additional forces of attraction
 DATIVE (CO-ORDINATE) COVALENT BONDING

A dative covalent bond differs from covalent bond

only in its formation
Both electrons of the shared pair are provided by one
species (donor) and it shares the electrons with the
acceptor

Donor species will have lone pairs in their outer shells

Acceptor species will be short of their “octet” or

maximum.

Lewis base a lone pair donor

Lewis acid a lone pair acceptor
 DATIVE COVALENT (CO-ORDINATE) BONDING

Ammonium ion, NH4+

The lone pair on N is used to share
with the hydrogen ion which needs
two electrons to fill its outer shell.

The N now has a +ive charge as

- it is now sharing rather than
owning two electrons.
 Boron trifluoride-ammonia NH3BF3

Boron has an incomplete shell in BF3 and can accept a share of a pair of
electrons donated by ammonia. The B becomes -ive as it is now shares a
pair of electrons (i.e. it is up one electron) it didn’t have before.
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES
DIAMOND, GRAPHITE and SILICA

Many atoms joined together in a regular array

by a large number of covalent bonds

GENERAL PROPERTIES

MELTING POINT Very high

structure is made up of a large number of covalent bonds,
all of which need to be broken if atoms are to be separated

ELECTRICAL Do not conduct electricity - have no mobile ions or

CONDUCTIVITY electrons.
but... Graphite conducts electricity.

STRENGTH Hard - exists in a rigid tetrahedral structure

e. g. Diamond and silica (SiO2).
But Graphite is soft.
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES
DIAMOND

MELTING POINT VERY HIGH

many covalent bonds must be broken to separate atoms

STRENGTH STRONG
each carbon is joined to four other C atoms in a rigid
structure Coordination Number = 4

ELECTRICAL NON-CONDUCTOR
No free electrons - all 4 carbon electrons used for bonding
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES
GRAPHITE

MELTING POINT VERY HIGH

many covalent bonds must be broken to separate atoms

STRENGTH SOFT
each carbon is joined to three other C atoms in a layered
structure Coordination Number = 3
Layers are held by weak van der Waals’ forces
Layers can slide over each other

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTOR
Only three carbon electrons are used for bonding which
leaves the fourth to move freely along layers

layers can slide over each other

used as a lubricant and in pencils
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES

DIAMOND GRAPHITE
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES
SILICA

MELTING POINT VERY HIGH

Many covalent bonds must be broken to separate atoms

STRENGTH STRONG
Each silicon atom is joined to four oxygens - C No. = 4
Each oxygen atom are joined to two silicons - C No = 2

ELECTRICAL NON-CONDUCTOR - No mobile electrons

 Polar Covalent Bond
• Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms in a molecule.
• One atom attracts the electrons more than the other atom.
• Results in a charge separation in the bond (partial positive and
partial negative charge).

22
The polarity of a bond depends on the difference between the
electronegativity values of the atoms forming the bond.

23
The three major types of intramolecular bonds can be described by
the electronegativity difference:

Non-Polar Covalent – Bonds which occur between atoms with

little or no electronegativity difference (less than 0.5).

Polar Covalent – Bonds which occur between atoms with a

definite electronegativity difference (between 0.5 and 2.0).

Ionic – Bonds which occur between atoms with a large

electronegativity difference (2.0 or greater), where electron transfer
can occur.
 Metallic Bonding

The “Sea of Electrons” Model

Due to low
electronegativities,
low effective nuclear
charges and large
diffuse orbitals,
electrons can flow
freely from one atom
to the next.
 Metallic Bonding

The “Sea of Electrons” Model

Electrons carry
electrical current,
if electrons can
flow freely
throughout the
metal the metal will
conduct electricity.
 Alloys

A mix of 2 or more metals.

2 types: Substitutional and Interstitial

Zn Cu Zn Fe Fe Fe
C C

Cu Zn Cu Fe Fe Fe

Brass (Zn and Cu in various Steel (Fe and C in various

proportions) proportions)
Typically Zn is put in place of a Cu C fills in the “holes” between the Fe
atom. atoms.
 METALLIC BOND STRENGTH
Depends on the number of outer electrons donated
to the cloud and the size of the metal atom/ion.

The strength of the metallic bonding in

Na sodium is relatively weak because each
atom donates one electron to the cloud.

The metallic bonding in potassium is

weaker than in sodium. Because, the
K resulting ion is larger and the electron
cloud has a bigger volume to cover. It is
less effective in holding the ions
together.

The metallic bonding in magnesium is

Mg stronger than in sodium, because each
atom has donated two electrons to the
cloud. When the electron density is
higher, it holds the ions together more
strongly.
 METALLIC PROPERTIES
Metals are excellent conductors of electricity

For a substance to conduct electricity it must have mobile ions or electrons.

Because the ELECTRON CLOUD IS MOBILE, electrons are free to move

throughout its structure. Electrons attracted to the positive end are replaced
by those entering from the negative end.

MOBILE ELECTRON CLOUD ALLOWS THE CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY

 METALLIC PROPERTIES
Metals can have their shapes changed relatively easily

MALLEABLE Can be hammered into sheets

DUCTILE Can be drawn into rods and wires

As the metal is beaten into another shape, the delocalised

electron cloud continues to bind the “ions” together.

Some metals, such as gold, can be hammered into sheets thin

enough to be translucent.
 METALLIC PROPERTIES
HIGH MELTING POINTS

Melting point is a measure of how easy it is to separate individual particles.

In metals, it is a measure of how strong the electron cloud holds the + ions.

The ease of separation of ions depends on the...

ELECTRON DENSITY OF THE CLOUD

IONIC / ATOMIC SIZE

PERIODS Na (2,8,1) < Mg (2,8,2) < Al (2,8,3)

m.pt 98°C 650°C 659°C
b.pt 890°C 1110°C 2470°C

Na+ Mg2+ Al3+

MELTING POINT INCREASES ACROSS THE PERIOD

THE ELECTRON CLOUD DENSITY INCREASES DUE TO THE GREATER NUMBER
OF ELECTRONS DONATED PER ATOM. AS A RESULT, THE IONS ARE HELD MORE
STRONGLY.
 METALLIC PROPERTIES
HIGH MELTING POINTS

Melting point is a measure of how easy it is to separate individual particles.

In metals it is a measure of how strong the electron cloud holds the + ions.

The ease of separation of ions depends on the...

ELECTRON DENSITY OF THE CLOUD

IONIC / ATOMIC SIZE

GROUPS Li (2,1) < Na (2,8,1) < K (2,8,8,1)

m.pt 181°C 98°C 63°C
b.pt 1313°C 890°C 774°C

Li+ Na+ K+

MELTING POINT DECREASES DOWN A GROUP

IONIC RADIUS INCREASES DOWN THE GROUP. AS THE IONS GET
BIGGER THE ELECTRON CLOUD BECOMES LESS EFFECTIVE
HOLDING THEM TOGETHER SO THEY ARE EASIER TO BE
SEPARATED.
Shapes of molecules
Molecular Shapes

Molecular Shapes are determined by:

Bond Distance – Distance between the nuclei of two

bonded atoms along a straight line.

Bond Angle – The angle between any two bonds

containing a common atom.

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Molecular Shapes

35
Molecular Shapes
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)

- VSEPR theory is based on the idea that electrostatic repulsion

of the electrons are reduced to a minimum, when the various
regions of high electron density assume positions as far apart
as possible.

- The “region of electron density” refers to:

- Lone pairs (Non bonding pairs)
- Covalent bonds (single, double, triple)

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Predicting the Shape of the Molecule
Sum the Number of Electron Domains around the Central Atom
in the Lewis Structure; Single = Double = Triple Bonds = Non-
Bonding Lone Pair of Electrons = Considered as One Electron
Domain

From the Total Number of Electron Domains, Predict the

Geometry and Bond Angle(s); 2 (Linear = 180º); 3 (Trigonal Planar
= 120º); 4 (Tetrahedral = 109.5º); 5 (Trigonal Bipyramidal = 120º
and 90º); 6 (Octahedral = 90º)
 Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)

Predicting the Shape of the Molecule

Lone Pair Electron Domains exert a greater repulsive force

than Bonding Domains. Electron Domains of Multiple
Bonds exert a greater repulsive force than Single Bonds.
Thus they tend to compress the bond angle.
Molecular Shapes
Predicting Molecular Geometries
- draw the Lewis structure
- count the total number of bonding regions and lone pairs
around the central atom
- arrange the bonding regions and lone pairs in one of the
standard geometries to minimize e−-e− repulsion
- multiple bonds count as one bonding region

39
Molecular Shapes
Predicting Molecular Geometries

40
Molecular Shapes
Predicting Molecular Geometries

41
Molecular Shapes
Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells

42
Molecular Shapes
Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells

43
Intermolecular Bonding
 Electronegativity

‘The ability of an atom to attract the electron pair in a covalent bond to itself’

Pauling Scale A scale for measuring electronegativity

values increase across periods

INCREASE
values decrease down groups
fluorine has the highest value
INCREASE

H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
K Br
0.8 2.8
 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity

- A chemical bond between elements with large differences in

electronegativity will shift the electrons to the atom with the
higher electronegativity. + −
H F H F
- The positive end (or pole) in a polar bond is represented + and
the negative pole -.

- This is called a polar covalent bond.

- If the electronegativity difference is small, the bond is nonpolar; if

it is large, it is a polar bond.

7
 Polarity of Molecules

Two simple rules to help determine molecular polarity (most of the

time)

The molecule is polar,

1. If there are lone pairs of electrons on the central atom.

2. If there is more than one type of bonds on the central atom.

 Polarity of Molecules

- To determine if a molecule is polar, consider:

- polarity of the bonds in a molecule
- how the bonds are arranged

- A molecule is considered to be polar if its centers of negative and

positive charges do not coincide.
+ −
H F H F

- Polar molecules have a dipole (a vector quantity)

- If these dipoles act equally and in opposition to each other, the

dipoles cancel-out and the molecule is considered nonpolar.
9
Permanent dipole
A permanent dipole exists in all polar molecules as a result of the
difference in the electronegativity of bonded atoms.

H-Cl bond dipole

 Polar Molecules

Occurrence Not all molecules containing polar bonds are polar

molecules. If bond dipoles ‘cancel each other’ the
molecule isn’t polar. If there is a ‘net dipole’ then
the molecule becomes polar.

HYDROGEN CHLORIDE TETRACHLOROMETHANE WATER

NET DIPOLE - POLAR NON-POLAR NET DIPOLE - POLAR

Dipole Moment in a Water Molecule

12
 Polarity of Molecules
Dipole Moments of Polyatomic Molecules

13
 Polarizability

• The ease with which an external electric field can induce a

dipole (alter the electron distribution) with a molecule is
referred to as the "polarizability" of that molecule.

• The greater the polarizability of a molecule, the easier it is to

induce a momentary dipole, and the stronger the dispersion
forces .
• Normally, large amount of electrons or low-density electron
cloud will show higher polarization.
 Polarizability

Large molecules tend to have greater polarizability.

– Their electrons are farther away from the nucleus (any

asymmetric distribution produces a larger dipole due to
larger charge separation)

– The number of electrons is greater (higher probability of

asymmetric distribution)
 Polarizability

Thus, dispersion forces tend to increase with increasing

molecular mass.
– Dispersion forces are also present between polar/non-
polar and polar/polar molecules (i.e. between all
molecules)

Some dispersion forces are larger than polarized dipole-dipole force!

e.g. CCl4 (76.5o)shows higher boiling point than CH3F(-78.4o)
 Intermolecular forces

• Ion-permanent dipole interactions

• Permanent dipole-permanent dipole
interactions
• Ion-induced dipole interactions
• Permanent dipole-induced dipole Dispersion Forces
interactions (London Forces)
• Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole
interactions
 Ion-Dipole interactions

An ion-dipole force is an attractive force that

results from the electrostatic attraction
between an ion and a neutral molecule that
has a dipole.

Most commonly found in solutions.

Especially important for solutions of ionic
compounds in polar liquids.
A positive ion (cation) attracts the partially
negative end of a neutral polar molecule.

A negative ion (anion) attracts the partially

positive end of a neutral polar molecule.

Ion-dipole attractions become stronger as either the charge on the ion increases, or
as the magnitude of the dipole of the polar molecule increases.
 Interaction Between Water and Cations

Hydration

in solution
18
 Ion-Dipole interactions

An ionic compound in a polar solvent.

e.g. Sodium acetate in water
 Dipole-Dipole Forces (Interactions)

Attractive forces between polar molecules

Dipole-dipole forces increase with an increase in the polarity of the molecule

14
 Dipole – Dipole Interactions
Higher the dipole-dipole interactions, higher the energy to
separate molecules. This results in higher boiling point than
expected for a given mass

Boiling points Mr °C Mr °C
CH4 16 -161 H2O 18 +100
of hydrides
SiH4 32 -117 H2S 34 -61
GeH4 77 -90 H2Se 81 -40
SnH4 123 -50 H2Te 130 -2

NH3 17 -33 HF 20 +20

PH3 34 -90 HCl 36.5 -85
AsH3 78 -55 HBr 81 -69
SbH3 125 -17 HI 128 -35
 Dispersion Forces (London Forces)
Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles
induced in atoms or molecules

Ion-induced dipole interaction

Dipole-induced dipole interaction

21
 Dispersion Forces (London Forces)
Instantaneous dipole-Induced dipole interactions
Caused by the natural vibrations of the
electrons in the bond, there is no permanent
dipole moment.
The dominant intermolecular force in non-
polar substances.
 Hydrogen Bonding
A specific case of Dipole – Dipole Forces.
The attractive force between hydrogen in a polar bond with O, N or
F and an unshared electron pair (lone pair) on a nearby highly
electronegative atom.
The result is a network of strong intermolecular interactions
between H atoms and available lone pairs.
Occurs extensively in H2O, NH3 and HF.

The primary reason H2O doesn’t behave as almost all other

substances in the known universe.
H2O expands when it freezes → everything else contracts
Hydrogen Bonding
• Because of the small sizes of H, F, N and O the
partial charges are concentrated in a small volume
thus leading to a high charge density

• That makes the intermolecular attractions greater

and leads to even higher boiling points
Why is the hydrogen bond considered as a “special” dipole-
dipole
interaction?

Decreasing molar mass

Decreasing boiling point
Groups 4, 5, 6A hydrides

Group 4A hydrides

43
The average strength of hydrogen bond is ~ 40KJ/mol.
The strength of hydrogen bond depends on the electronegativity of
atoms.

e.g. HF shows higher strength than H2O. However, H2O shows

Higher boiling point than HF? Each H2O has 4 H-bond.

44
 HYDROGEN BONDING - ICE

• Each water molecule is hydrogen-bonded to 4

others in a tetrahedral formation
• Ice has a “diamond-like” structure
• Volume is larger than the liquid making it
when ice melts, the structure collapses
slightly and the molecules come closer;
they then move a little further apart as
they get more energy as they warm up

• this is why…

hydrogen bonding
a) water has a maximum density at 4°C
b) ice floats.
One of the most remarkable consequences of H-bonding is found in the lower
density of ice in comparison to liquid water, so ice floats on water. In most
substances the molecules in the solid are more densely packed than in the
liquid. A given mass of ice occupies a greater volume than that of liquid water.
This is because of an ordered open H-bonding arrangement in the solid (ice) in
comparison to continual forming & breaking H-bonds as a liquid.
 HYDROGEN BONDING - HF

¯ ¯
F + F +
 + +
H ¯ H
¯ H
H
F F

hydrogen bonding

Hydrogen fluoride has a much higher boiling point than one

would expect for a molecule with a relative molecular mass of 20

Fluorine has the highest electronegativity of all and is a small

atom so the bonding with hydrogen is extremely polar
 Intermolecular Forces

Covalent Bonds are NOT intermolecular forces. They are

INTRAMOLECULAR forces.
So what are INTERMOLECULEAR Forces?
The forces of attraction/repulsion that exist between molecules.
The ones we need to overcome to change the state of the
substance.

Relative Strengths of Bond Types

Ionic Covalent

Intermolecular Forces
Strength of inter molecular forces

Depends on three factors (in decreasing order of

importance) : -
1. Size of the molecule
2. Surface area of the molecule
3. Polarity of the molecule
1. Size of Atom/Molecule
Sometimes !
Atom/ Boiling Rel.
Sizemolecular mass 
of molecule
Molecule point
(oC)
Helium -269
Neo Size of electron cloud 
-246
n -186
Arg
on Polarizability 
Fluorine -188
Chlorin -34.7

e
58.8 Dispersion forces 

Bromin
e
2. Surface area of molecule

The van der Waals’ forces also increase

with the surface area of the molecule.

∵ van der Waals' forces are short-ranged forces

Atoms or molecules must come close together

for significant induction of dipoles.
 2,2-dimethylpropane
Pentane (C5H12) (C5H12)
Both are
non-polar
Same no. of
electrons

Boiling point: 36.1°C Boiling point: 9.5°C

 rod-shaped spherical in shape

pentane molecules
larger contact area 2,2-dimethylpropane molecules
smaller contact area
Pentane (C5H12)

Boiling point
= 36.1C

Larger contact surface area

 Higher chance of forming induced dipoles
 stronger dispersion forces
2,2-dimethylpropane
(C5H12)
Boiling point
= 9.5C

Smaller contact surface area

 lower chance of forming induced dipoles
 weaker dispersion forces
3. Polarity of molecules

For molecules with comparable molecular sizes and

shapes, dispersion forces are approximately equal.

Then, strength of van der Waals’ forces depends on the

polarity of molecules involved

Polar/polar > polar/non-polar > non-polar/non-polar

 H3 C Dipole- H3 C
+ − dipole + −
C O forces C O
+
H3 C Dispersion forces H3C

RMM = 58.0,
b.p. = 50C

H2 H2
C CH3 C CH3
H3 C C H3 C C
H2 H2
Dispersion forces
RMM = 58.0, only
b.p. = 0C
Other examples : -
1. Graphite layers of large surface area
 strong van der Waals’ forces
2. Polyethylene vs ethene
(m.p. > 100C) (m.p. = −169C)
What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist between each of the
following molecules?

HBr
HBr is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are
also dispersion forces between HBr molecules.

CH4
CH4 is nonpolar: dispersion forces.

S
SO2
SO2 is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are
also dispersion forces between SO2 molecules.
39
End of lecture