Moles and Gases:

 1 mole of any gas or molar volume has volume of 24 dm3 (24000 cm3) at room temperature and pressure RTP.

This statement indicates that we should use rule of gas

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 (𝐝𝐦𝟑) 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐠𝐚𝐬 (𝐜𝐦𝟑)

Number of Moles of gas = or =
𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎

Volume of gas (dm3) = Moles x 24 or Volume of gas (cm3) = Moles x 24000

 Units cm3 ÷ 1000 dm3

X 1000

Moles and Solutions:

For reactions involving solutions, you have to know the concentration of the solution and the volume of solution

 Concentration is measured in mol /dm3 • Volume of solution Must be in dm3

Number of Moles of solution = Concentration (mol/dm3) x Volume (dm3)

𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬
Volume of solution in dm3 =
𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬
Concentration of solution =
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
Explaining the trend of chemical reactivity of Group I in terms of electronic configuration

As you go down across Group 1 , reactivity increases … Why ???

‫ الشدة بتكون اضعف و بيكون سهل اجري‬, ‫ كل لما ابعد‬, ‫عايز اجرى و في حبل ماسكني‬
K > Na > Li Why is Potassium more reactive than Sodium and Lithium ?

 Group one metals react by losing one electron forming ion with charge +1
Easier to lose an electron = more reactive

there is attraction between nuclues (+) AND electron (-) in outer shell
Li
3Li → → 2,①

11Na → N → 2 ,8 ,①
a

19K → K → 2,8,8,①

 Potassium has more electron shells than Sodium and Lithium

(the electron in outer shell gets further from the nucleus )

 Potassium has weaker attraction between the nucleus and the electron in outer shell

 So it is easier for Potassium to lose an electron. And so K is more reactive than than Na ,and Li

Explaining the trend of reactivity of Group 7 in terms of electronic configuration

As you go down across Group 7 reactivity decreases….. Why ???

F > Cl > Br > I ‫ضيف جديد و عايز حد يمسك فيه‬

9 F→ 2,⑦
17Cl→2, 8, ⑦
Why Chlorine is less reactive than Fluorine in terms of electronic configuration ?
 Group seven elements react through gaining an electron , forming ion with charge -1

 Chlorine has more electron shells than Fluorine

The electrons in outer shell get further from the nucleus

 Chlorine has weaker attraction between the nucleus and the electrons in outer shell

 So it will be more difficult for Chlorine to gain an electron compared to Fluorine

and so Chlorine is less reactive than Fluorine
 Energy diagrams

Time Time
Energy diagram for an Exothermic reaction showing activation energy Ea and

Energy diagram for Endothermic reaction showing activation energy Ea and

Ea without Catalyst and with Catalyst

Energy diagram without catalyst and with catalyst

 Catalyst has no effect on energy change

 = Bonds broken ― Bonds formed

Why a reaction is Exothermic , Why a reaction is Endothermic ,

in terms of Bonds broken and bonds formed ? in terms of Bonds broken and bonds formed ?
 Breaking bonds of Reactants absorbs energy  Breaking bonds of Reactants absorbs energy
 Bonds formation of Products release energy  Bonds formation of Products release energy
 Energy released greater than energy absorbed  Energy absorbed greater than energy released

Metallic structure and Metallic bonding

 Describe the Structure and forces of attraction of Metals:
Layers of Positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons.
Electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ions and the delocalised electrons.

 What is meant by Metallic bond ?

Electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ions and the delocalised electrons.
Diagram to show the structure of a metal ‫مهمه‬

Sea of delocalised electrons

Positive ion

1. Why most of metals have high melting point and are Hard ?

Due strong electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ions and delocalised electrons
large amount of heat energy required to overcome these forces of attraction

2. Why metals conduct electricity ?

Due to presence of delocalised electrons which are free to move throughout the structure

 Metals are good conductor electricity at Solid and Liquid state

3. Why are metals malleable (can be bend ito shape ) ?

Layers of postive ions can slide over each other

Alloys
 What is meant by an Alloy ?
Alloy is a Mixture of different metals

 Why are alloys harder and less malleable than pure metals?
In pure metal ,the metal atoms are the same size ,(Layers have regular arrangement )

So layers can slide over each other easily

In an Alloy, the metal atoms have different sizes , (Layers have irregular arrangement)

So it will be more difficult for the layers to slide over each other.
 Pure metal Alloy

Covalent structures two types

Metal + Non metal Non metal + Non metal Non metal + Non metal Metal
Ionic compound Molecule ‫اعداد قليله جوة‬ ‫اعداد كتيره جدا‬
Covalent compound NO INTERMOLECULAR
Examples NaCl , MgO ,CaF2 H2 ,CO2 , NH3 ,C60 fullerene Diamond and Graphite Aluminum ,Iron
Bond Ionic bond Covalent bond Covalent bond Metallic bond
Structure Giant ionic lattice Simple molecular structure Giant Covalent structure Giant metallic structure

Positive ions in a sea

+ and ― Ions Composed of Molecules of delocalised electrons
Melting and High Low High High
Boiling
points
Strong electrostatic forces Weak intermolecular forces of Strong covalent bonds Strong electrostatic forces
of attraction between attraction Large amount of heat energy is of attraction between
positive and negative ions Little amount of heat energy is required to break the covalent positive ions and
Large amount of heat required to break bonds. delocalised electrons.
energy is required to break Large amount of heat
these forces of attraction energy is required to break
between ions. .
Conduction
of electricity

 At Solid X Ions cannot move X X ✓

 At Liquid ✓ Ions can move X X
Do not conduct except ✓
Graphite
No ions
No delocalised electrons Metals have
Diamond has no Delocalised electrons
delocalised electrons which are free to move
throughout the
Graphite has delocalised structure
electrons which are free to
move throughout the
structure

Conduction of electricity

Free moving Ions Delocalised electrons (which are free to move)

Ionic Compounds (M + NM) ) ( + - ) Graphite Metals

In Molten (l) , and Aqueous (aq) ✓ ✓ in Solid (S) And Molten (l) ✓

In Solid (s) X
 Titration
???????? Acid needed to neutralise 25 cm3 Alkali Unknown in Burette

Describe the experimental procedure to carry out a titration to find the exact volume of Hydrochloric acid
needed to neutralise 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution and obtain pure, dry crystals of sodium chloride .

Steps of Titration

Pipette Conical flask Burette

1. Measure 25 cm3of Sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq) using Pipette and add to a Conical flask.

2. Few drops of indicator are added to the flask. Indicator could be Phenolphthalein or Methyl orange or Litmus

Universal indicator could not be used as an indicator in titration.

 Phenolphthalein turns Pink when added to the flask containing NaOH

3. Rinse Burette with Hydrochloric acid.

4. Fill burette with Hydrochloric acid HCl (aq).

Add the acid from the burette and Swirl the flask

to mix acid and alkali

5. The acid is added till indicator changes colour

 Phenolphthalein turns from Pink to Colourless. = End point = Neutralisation = All the alkali has reacted .

6. Record Start and Final Burette readings

Volume of acid = Final burette reading ― Start burette reading

7. Repeat experiment until you get concordant results.

Repeat the experiment same volumes of acid and alkali determined from titration but without indicator .

Now you have neutral Sodium chloride aqueous solution Carry out Crystallisation
Heat the solution till crystallisation point (or till solution becomes saturated).
Leave to cool and filter the crystals. Crystals are dried by filter paper

 Why pipette is used in measuring volume of Sodium hydroxide not measuring cylinder?

Because pipette is more accurate than measuring cylinder

 Why Universal indicator is not used as an indicator in titration?

Universal indicator shows gradual colour change .No sharp colour change at the end point

 After addition of each drop of acid from burette to the flask Swirling Why?

1. to mix the solutions

2. to make sure that the colour changes permanently

 Add the acid drop wise near the endpoint .Why?

To find accurate point of neutralisation

So as not to add more acid than is needed (so as not to overshoot the end point ‫)علشان متعديش‬

 A white tile is put under the flask To see the colour change more Clearly

 Repeat the titration and take average why ?

1. to increase reliability of the results (to increase accuracy ) to identify anomalous results

2. and to get concordant results

 Concordant results are volumes that differ from each other by 0.20 cm3 or less

 The flask is rinsed with distilled water (NOT with Sodium hydroxide) Why ?

To remove any impurities from previous experiments

 If few amounts of water was present in the flask ,(not dried) ,

Will this affect the volume of acid from burette ?

No effect , as same moles of sodium hydroxide. Water does not affect moles of alkali

 The burette is rinsed at first with water and then rinsed with the acid ? ‫بتتغسل بالحاجه الي هتتملي بيها‬

Burette Rinsed with water to remove any impurities from previous experiment .
Rinsed then acid to remove water(avoid dilution of acid)
• Make sure no bubbles in Burette ( make sure that the space between tip and tip contain liquid)
 Making insoluble salts (Precipitation method) :

What is meant by “Precipitate “? A (aq) + B (aq) → C (s) + D (aq)

Precipitate is a Solid that is formed from mixing aqueous solutions

Example: How to make Silver chloride AgCl (s) insoluble salt

AgCl
Ag+ Cl-
Silver ion Chloride ion

Bring Soluble salt containing Ag Bring Soluble salt containing Cl

E.g. Silver nitrate AgNO3 (aq) E.g. Sodium chloride NaCl (aq)

(Attach NO3 to metal) (Attach Na or K to – ion)

Key:

All Na, K compounds are soluble in water

All nitrates are soluble in water

To prepare Silver chloride AgCl (s) , mix aqueous Silver nitrate AgNO3 (aq) and aqueous Sodium chloride NaCl (aq)

Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride → Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Type of reaction: Precipitation reaction

Ionic equation for the reaction : Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s)
 Steps

1. Mix the two aqueous solutions in a beaker ,stir well by glass rod
Observation: White ppt of Silver chloride AgCl (s)

2. Filter to obtain the solid

3. Wash the solid (Silver chloride) with distilled water

to remove remaining sodium nitrate solution (residue or ppt washed to remove soluble impurities)

4. Dry using filter paper or left in warm place , to remove water

1. Filter 2. Wash solid with distilled water 3. Dry using filter paper

Washing must be done through distilled water (NOT tap water)

because distilled water is pure and does not contain any dissolved impurities
 Alcohols
 Alcohols are compounds with the ―OH functional group : O―H • ends with anol

Name Displayed formula

Methanol

Structural formula: CH3OH

Ethanol

Molecular formula C2H6 O

Structural formula : CH3CH2OH

Propanol

Structural formula : CH3CH2CH2OH

Butanol

Structural formula: CH3CH2CH2CH2OH

 Alcohols are Saturated compounds as all the bonds are single bonds.

 Alcohols are not hydrocarbons as alcohols contain Oxygen atom

Chemical reactions of Ethanol C2H6 O or C2H5OH

1. Complete combustion of Ethanol: Ethanol burn in excess air to form Carbon dioxide and water

C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O

2. Ethanol can be Oxidised by Heating with ‫مهمه جدا‬

a) Potassium dichromate(VI) b) in presence of dilute Sulfuric acid to form Ethanoic acid

Observation : Colour changes from Orange to Green ‫مهمه جدا‬

Two methods for Preparation of Ethanol

1. Fermentation 2. Hydration of Ethene (addition of water to Ethene)
1. Fermentation What is Fermentation process?
Ethanol is produced from Sugar solution (aqueous Glucose) in the presence of Yeast

 Role of yeast : Yeast has Enzymes which act as Catalyst

• Conditions of Fermentation :
Temperature : 30 °C, and absence of air (anaerobic )
Equation of Fermentation:

C6H12O6 (aq) → 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)

Glucose aqueous solution Ethanol + Carbon dioxide gas

 Products of Fermentation of Glucose are Ethanol and Carbon dioxide.

 Fermentation is a slow process • Fermentation is Exothermic • Fermentation produces Impure ethanol

 Main impurity is water. Ethanol + water is separated to obtain pure ethanol through Fractional distillation
this takes advantage of the difference in boiling point between water and ethanol.

 The fermentation mixture contains yeast and insoluble impurities which are separated through Filtration

 Why fermentation stops after a period of time?

1. All glucose is used up 2. Enzymes of the yeast are denatured by high temperature

 Why is fermentation done in absence of air ?

If air is present , ethanol will react with oxygen in air and oxidised to form Ethanoic acid

 Why temperature greater than 40 °C is not used in fermentation ?

>40 °C higher temperature denatures the enzymes of yeast and so slows down the reaction

 Advantages of producing Ethanol by fermentation

1. Use renewable resources.

2. Low temperature and Pressure and so Low energy costs

3. Catalyst used is yeast , which is natural , non toxic

 Disadvantages of producing Ethanol by Fermentation

1. Slow process (inefficient) 2. Produces impure ethanol (ethanol has to be purified )

2. Hydration of Ethene : Addition reaction of Water (H-OH) + Ethene to form Ethanol

Alkenes undergo an addition reaction with water in the presence of a catalyst to form an Alcohol.

Double bond changes to single bond. Carbon atom is attached to H and the other Carbon is attached to OH

C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH ‫مهمه‬

Conditions of Hydration of Ethene reaction : ‫مهمه‬
1. Temperature 300 °C. 2. Pressure 65 atm 3. Catalyst : Phosphoric acid
 Advantages of making Ethanol from hydration of Ethene over fermentation
1. Faster process 2. Produces purer Ethanol

 Disadvantages of making Ethanol from hydration of Ethene

1. Use of non renewable resources .

Source of Ethene is Cracking of Crude oil (nonrenewable).

2. Need higher temperature and pressure (and so higher costs)

Carboxylic acids

 Functional group of Carboxylic acid is • Carboxylic acids have anoic acid name ending

Name Displayed formula

1C
Methanoic acid

Structural formula HCOOH

2C
Ethanoic acid
 Vinegar is an aqueous solution containing Ethanoic acid
Structural formula CH3COOH
Molecular formula C2H4O2
Empirical formula CH2O

3C
Propanoic acid

Structural formula CH3CH2COOH

4C
Butanoic acid

Structural formula CH3CH2CH2COOH

 Reactions of Carboxylic acids :

―COO H → ―COO metal

Acid Salt

1. Carboxylic acid+ Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

2HCOOH (aq) + 2K(s) 2HCOOK(aq) + H2(g)

2. Carboxylic Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

 Observations: Bubbles And Solid get smaller or disappear
 Reaction between Alcohols and Carboxylic acids
Alcohol + Carboxylic acid → Ester + Water
The functional groups of Alcohol OH and HOOC Carboxylic acid preferred to be opposite to each other

This reaction involves loss of a Water molecule. (H from Alcohol and O―H from Carboxylic acid)

Ethanol + Ethanoic acid

+
― H alcohol ― OH acid

+ H2O

Alcohol part Contains O Acid part Contains

Alcohol parts ends Yl Acid parts ends with anoate

2C= Eth 2C = Eth Start the name with the alcohol part

Name of Ester : Ethyl Ethanoate

 Condtions of the reaction between Alcohols and Carboxylic acids:
Concentrated Sulphuric acid as a Catalyst ‫مهمه جدا‬

 Ester have Sweet smell And so Esters are Used in perfumes

Bonds Broken Bonds formed

2O―H and 1C―O 2O―H and 1C―O
ΔH = 0
amount of energy absorbed in breaking bonds = amount of energy released in bonds formation

• Functional group of Ester :

‫مهمه جدا‬

CO O

 CH3CH2COOCH3 • HCOOCH2CH2CH2CH3
Name : Methyl Propanoate Name : Butyl Methanoate

Alcohol: Methanol Alcohol : Butanol

Carboxylic acid : Propanoic acid Carboxylic acid : Methanoic acid
 Condensation Polymerisation :
 Small molecule such as water is formed with the polymer
Condenstaion : Polymer + Water are formed . Addition : Polymer only
 2 Different monomers are joined alternatively
Example of condensation polymer : Polyester (Acid + Alcohol)

each monomer has TWO arms at each end

Dicarboxylic acid diol 2 different monomers

Repeated unit of Polyester

decomposed by microorganisms and so it is easier to dispose(do not remain in landfill sites)

Monomer A Monomer B
 What is meant by Electrolysis ?
It is the Break down of a Compound by Electricity
Two electrodes PANC = Positive Anode Negative Cathode.

 Positive electrode connected to + pole called Anode

 Negative electrode connected to –pole called Cathode

 Electrodes are made of Graphite (Carbon) or Platinum (Unreactive metal) as

1. Good conductor of electricity 2. Inert: Unreactive to prevent reaction with the products of electrolysis.

Electrolysis of Molten electrolyte Example: Electrolysis of Molten lead (II) bromide PbBr2 (l)

Bulb -+ Molten electrolyte : 2 ions 1 + and 1 -

Heating

 Nothing occurs till Lead (II) Bromide melts, where ions are free to move.
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity as ions cannot move.
 The ions present are Pb2+ and Br- . The ions move to the electrode of opposite charge.

Half ionic equation at the Negative electrode :

Pb2+ (l) + 2e - Pb(s) Reduction

Lead ion Pb2+is Positive ion and so moves to negative electrode
Pb2+ gains two electrons , Reduction occurs and forms Pb element ,

Produt at negative eletrode : Lead element Pb is produed Observation : Shiny grey solid

Half ionic equation at the Positive electrode:

2Br-(l) ― 2e- Br2 (g) Or 2Br-(l) Br2(g) + 2e- Oxidation

Bromide ion Br- is negative ion and so moves to Positive electrode
Bromide ion Br- lost electron , Oxidation occurs and form Bromine molecule Br2

Product at positive eletrode : Bromine Br2 is produced Obervation : Red brown gas

 Both products are elements Observation : Bulb lights up:

 If you stop heating : the bulb goes out as ions stop moving . No gain or lose of electrons at electrodes
another scenario , although you stop heating lamp is still alight , as lead metal prodcued conducts electricity
 Electrolysis of Aqueous solutions
Difference is the presence of Water H2O. Water ionises to give H+ and OH- (Hydroxide ion) H2O → H+ + OH-

 Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium chloride solution NaCl (aq) 4 Ions present: 2 + and 2 –

Na+ Cl- ( From NaCl)

H+ OH- (from Water)

Na+ , H+attracted to Negative electrode Cl- , OH- attracted to the Positive electrode
Which positive ion will be discharged? Which negative ion will be discharged?
Depends on the type of the solution
 The positive ion of the lower reactive
element will be discharged  If concentrated halide solution :
The halide ion will be discharged
H less reactive than Na
Cl- ,Br- , I-
so H+ will be discharged to H2
K  If diluted halide solution :
Na Hydroxide ion OH- will be discharged
Li  If any other electrolyte :
Ca Hydroxide ion OH- will be discharged
Mg
Al At this example ,electrolyte is :
C Concentrated Sodium Chloride solution
Zn Concentrated Halide
-
Fe So Cl will be changed to Cl2
H OH- remain at the solution
Cu
Ag
Negative electrode half equation : Positive electrode half equation :
2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g) 2Cl- (aq) ― 2e- Cl2 (g) or 2Cl-→Cl2 +2e-
Hydrogen gas Observation : Bubbles Chlorine gas produced Observation : Bubbles
Reduction , H+ gain electrons Oxidation : Cl- lost electrons
Na+ Cl- H+removed at Negative electrode and Cl- are removed at Positive electrode

H+ OH- Na+and OH-combine to form Sodium hydroxide NaOH

++
Products of electrolysis of concentrated Sodium Chloride solution:
1. Chlorine gas Cl2 at the Positive electrode → Chlorine used in water purification (kill bacteria)

2. Hydrogen gas H2 at the Negative electrode.

3. Sodium hydroxide Solution NaOH at the Negative electrode. PH of solution > 7 as NaOH Alkaline

2e- → 1 molecule of H2 and 2e- → 1 molecule of Cl2

 Equal volumes of two gases should be collected

according to ionic half equations Why ?
For every 2 electrons that flow, you get 1 molecule of chlorine

and also 1 molecule of Hydrogen

Same number of molecules produced from same number of electrons

 The Volume of Chorine is less than expected why ?

as some Chlorine dissolved in solution ‫مهمه جدا‬
Electrolysis of Copper (II) Sulfate aqueous solutionCuSO4 (aq) using inert electrodes.
CuSO4 (aq) is Blue solution

Ions present: Cu 2+ SO42-

H+ OH-
At Negative electrode At Positive electrode
Cu 2+, H+ attracted to (-) Cathode SO42- , OH- attracted to (+) Anode
Which positive ion will be discharged? Which negative ion will be discharged?
Copper less reactive than Hydrogen , OH-will be discharged
Cu2+ will be discharged

Negative electrode half equation : Positive electrode half equation : ‫حفظ زي ما هي مهمه جدا جدا‬
Cu 2+(aq) + 2e- Cu (s) 2H2O (l) O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-
Copper is formed . Observation : Brown solid Oxygen Is produced . Observation : bubbles
+2
Reduction as Cu gains electrons Oxidation as 2H2O lost electrons
SO42-
Cu 2+
Cu 2+removed at cathode, OH- removed at anode
OH-
H+ H+ and SO42- combine to form Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)

 Copper (II) sulfate (electrolyte) is changed to Sulfuric acid , final PH < 7 turns universal indicator red

Observations:
1. Bubbles

2. The Colour of solution fades

Colour of solution fades(changes from Blue to Colourless) Why?

 Blue colour of solution is due to Copper ions Cu+2
 Concentration of Cu2+ decreases (Cu+2 are removed from solution)

3. Brown solid coats the negative electrode = Copper formed

Increase in the mass of negative electrode

(as solid copper is formed around the negative electrode)

Explain the shape of the Curve

 The mass of negative electrode increases

as Solid copper is formed
 Then the mass of negative electrode remain constant
as no more Copper ions
Electrolysis of dilute Sulfuric acid H2SO4 (aq)
 Acids conduct electricity as it has free moving ions H+

Ions in the solution: H+ SO42- from acid

H+ OH- from water

At the Negative electrode :

2H+ (aq) + 2e- H2 (g) Observation : Bubbles

At the Positive electrode

2H2O (l) O2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- Observation: Bubbles

4e- → 1 O2
4e- → 2 H2

 Hydrogen collected twice the volume of the oxygen. According to half ionic equations Why ?

For every 4 electrons that flow around the circuit, you get 1 molecule of O2

But for every 4 electrons that flow, you get 2 molecules of H2.

You get twice the number of molecules of hydrogen as of oxygen

How to collect gas sample ?

Fill test tube or measuring cylinder with electrolyte solution

Place the tube or measuring cylinder over the electrodes

Why do covalent compounds (Non metal + Non metal) such as water do not conduct electricity

 Covalent compounds have no ions

 Covalent compounds have no delocalised electrons

Extraction of Metals
 Most of metals are found in the earth combined with other elements not free , exist in compound form

 Metal ore: rock that contain metal compound ,from which pure metal is extracted.

 Unreactive metals such as Gold , silver are found as uncombined elements

 How a metal is extracted depends on its position in the reactivity series .

 Metals above Carbon in reactivity series :

Can not be extracted through heating metal oxide with Carbon

 Metals below Carbon in reactivity series :

Can be extracted through heating metal oxide with Carbon

C + Metal Oxide → CO2 + Metal

Extraction of Aluminum from Aluminum ore

 Chemical composition of Aluminum ore is Aluminum oxide Al2O3

 Aluminum is not extracted through heating with Carbon .Why?

C + Al2O3 No reaction

As Aluminum is more reactive than Carbon , so carbon cannot displace aluminum from its oxide

Aluminum is extracted from its ore ,through electrolysis of molten electrolyte

 Lot of electricity is required for this process of extraction, this is major expense
 Aluminum oxide is an ionic compound. When it is melted the ions are free to move. Ions are : Al3+ and O2-

 Negative electrode half ionic equation : Al3+is positive ion and so moves to negative electrode(cathode)

Al3+ (l) + 3e- Al (l)

Al3+ gain 3 electrons, Al3+ is reduced Molten aluminum is produced near the negative electrode
 Positive electrode half ionic equation: O2- is negative ion and so moves to positive electrode (anode),

2O2- (l) ― 4e - O2 (g) Or 2O2- (l) O2 (g) + 4e-

O2-lose electrons, O2- is oxidized Oxygen gas produced around positive electrodes

The positive electrodes have to be replaced regularly. Why?

Carbon in positive electrode reacts with Oxygen forming Carbon dioxide C + O2 → CO2
Products at the positive electrode (anode) are Oxygen gas and Carbon dioxide gas

Uses of Aluminum:
1. Aluminum is used for areoplanes, as it has low density and strong

High strength to weight ratio

2. Aluminum is used for food packaging , foils , cans , and cooking utensils

 as it is non toxic , (does not react with food or drinks) ,resists corrosion

 low density

 malleable

Extraction of iron : Iron ore is Iron (III) oxideFe2O3

 Iron is extracted from its ore through heating with Carbon Why?
Iron is less reactive than Carbon ,so Carbon can displace iron from its oxide
3C + 2Fe2O3(s) 3CO2(g) + 4Fe(l)
So Iron III oxide could be reduced to iron by heating with Carbon
Role of Carbon : Carbon act as Reducing agent , it takes Oxygen from Fe2O3
• Another method for extraction of Iron from its ore : Electrolysis (expensive)
 Equilibrium
Reversible reactions reach state of Equilibrium where: Characteristics of Equilibrium ‫مهمه جدا جدا جدا‬

 Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction

 Concentrations of reactants and products remain constant (but NOT necessarily equal.)

‫بشتغل بالعكس‬
1) Effect of Changing temperature

Decrease temperature favours exothermic reaction

2) Effect of changing pressure

 For gases only • Difference in the number of moles of gas between Right side and Left side

Increase pressure shifts to side of lower number of moles of gas

Decrease pressure shift to side of higher number of moles of gas

3) Effect of Catalyst

 Catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction.

 Catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium and so does not affect the yield Why ??

As Catalyst speeds up both forward and backward reactions equally

Left Right

4 moles gas 2 moles gas

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) Exothermic

2NH3(g) = - 92 KJ/mol
Endothermic Forward reaction is exothermic

 As temperature increases , position of equilibrium shifts to Left as Backward reaction is

endothermic and so yield of NH3 decreases.
 As temperature decreases , position of equilibrium shifts to Right as forward reaction is
exothermic, and so yield of NH3 increases.
 As pressure increases , position of equilibrium shifts to Right as fewer moles of gas on Right side
and so yield of NH3 increases.
 As pressure decreases , position of equilibrium shifts to Left as Higher moles of gas on Left side
and so yield of NH3 decreases.
 As Relative Molecular mass Mr increases :
 Diffusion is slower ( heavier particles move slower than lighter particles)
 The melting and boiling points increase : as intermolecular forces get stronger .

Solubility
Solubility is affected by

 Temperature
 Type of Solvent
Experimental procedure to know maximum mass of salt dissolved in 100 cm3 water at
room temperature
 Weigh empty evaporating dish
 Measure 100 cm3 of water using burette
 Add salt and stir ,
salt is added until no more salt dissolve
 Filter to remove undissolved salt
 Transfer saturated salt solution to evaporating dish and weigh salt solution and dish
 Heat the solution gently to evaporate all water , leaving behind salt

Heat till constant mass , to ensure all water has evaporated

Heat gently (NOT STRONGLY , not directly to Bunsen burner): to prevent spitting of Salt or Solution
and so the value of Solubility will than its true value.
Also heating strongly may cause thermal decomposition of Solid .

 Weigh mass of evaporating dish and Salt