Compilation of DUDE and Name Reactions 2

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283
THE SOLID STATE
 Solid: A solid is defined as that form of matter which possesses rigidity and hence possesses a
definite shape and a definite volume.
 Classification of solids:
 Crystalline and Amorphous solids:
S.No. Crystalline Solids Amorphous solids
1 Regular internal arrangement of irregular internal arrangement of particles

particles
2 Sharp melting point Melt over a rage of temperature
3 Regarded as true solids Regarded as super cooled liquids or pseudo solids
4 Undergo regular cut Undergo irregular cut.
5 Anisotropic in nature Isotropic in nature
 Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature, that is, some of their physical properties like
electrical resistance or refractive index show different values in different directions in the
same crystal. This property is called anisotropy.
 Amorphous solids are isotropic in nature, that is, value of any physical property would be
same along any direction. This property is called isotropy.
 Based on binding forces:

Crystal Classification Unit Binding Forces Properties Examples
Particles
Atomic Atoms London dispersion Soft, very low melting, Noble
forces poor thermal and electrical gases
conductors
Molecular Polar or Vander Waal’s Fairly soft, low to Dry ice
non – polar forces (London moderately high melting (solid,
molecules dispersion, dipole – points, poor thermal and methane
dipole forces electrical conductors
hydrogen bonds)
Ionic Positive and Ionic bonds Hard and brittle, high NaCl, ZnS
negative ions melting points, high heats
of fusion, poor thermal and
electrical conductors
Covalent Atoms that Covalent bonds Very hard, very high Diamond,
are connected melting points, poor quartz,
in covalent thermal and electrical silicon
bond network conductors
Metallic Solids Cations in Metallic bonds Soft to very hard, low to All metallic
electron very high melting points, elements,
cloud excellent thermal and for
electrical conductors, example,
malleable and ductile Cu, Fe, Zn
 Crystal Lattice: The regular three dimensional arrangement of the constituent particles in a crystal
in which each particle is represented by a point is called crystal lattice.
 Unit Cell: The smallest but complete unit in the crystal lattice which when repeated over and
again in three dimensions produces the complete lattice is called a unit cell.
 Bravais lattice: The fourteen lattices corresponding to seven crystal system are known as Bravais
Lattice.
 Coordination number: The number of spheres touching to a particular sphere.
 Packing Efficiency
Packing Efficiency = (Volume occupied by all the atoms present in unit cell / Total volume of unit
cell)×100
Close structure Number of atoms per Relation between edge Packing Efficiency
unit cell ‘z’. length ‘a’ and radius of
atom ‘r’
hcp and ccp or fcc 4 r = a/(2√2) 74%
Bcc 2 r = (√3/4)a 68%
Simple cubic lattice 1 r = a/2 52.4%
 Density of crystal lattice:

r = (Number of atoms per unit cell × Mass number)/(Volume of unit cell × NA)

or
 Octahedral and Tetrahedral Voids:

Number of octahedral voids = Number of effective atoms present in unit cell
Number of tetrahedral voids = 2×Number of effective atoms present in unit cell
So, Number of tetrahedral voids = 2× Number of octahedral voids
 Imperfection and defects in solids
Types of Defects:-
1. Stoichiometric defects
2. Non-Stoichiometric defects
3. Impurity defects
 Defects in crystal:
 Stoichiometric Defects
In these defects the ratio of anion and cation remains same as the Stoichiometry of the substance
not changed.
These are classified as:

a. Vacancy defects:
These arise when some sites of the crystal lattice are vacant, it decrease density.
b. Interstitial Defects:
When some constituent particles present in the interstitial side, it increase the density of the
crystal.
1. Schottky Defects
 Some of the lattice points in a crystal are unoccupied.
 Appears in ionic compounds in which anions and cations are of nearly same size.
 Decreases the density of lattice
 Examples: NaCl ,KCl and AgBr
2. Frenkel Defects
 Ion dislocate from its position and occupies an interstitial position between the lattice points
 Appears in crystals in which the negative ions are much larger than the positive ion.
 Does not affect density of the crystal.
 Examples: AgBr, ZnS
 Non-Stoichiometric Defects
1. Metal Excess defect:

 Metal excess defect occurs due to
 anionic vacancies or
 presence of extra cation.
 F-Centres: hole produced due to absence of anion which is occupied by an electron.
2. Metal deficiency defect:

 Metal deficiency defect occurs
 due to variable valency of metals
 when one of the positive ions is missing from its lattice site and the extra negative charge is
balanced by some nearby metal ion acquiring two charges instead of one.
 Doping: -
The process of adding impurities to a crystalline substance so as to change its properties is called
doping.
 Electrical properties of solids
1. Conductors:-
The solids which have conductivity in the range of 104 to 107 ohm-1m-1 are called conductors.
2. Insulators :-
The solids which have extremely low conductivity ranging between 10-20 to 10-10 ohm-1m-1 are
called insulators.
3. Semiconductors:-
The solids which have conductivity between the conductors and insulators, ranging from 10-6 to
104 ohm-1m-1 are called semiconductors.
 Magnetic properties of solids: -
 Diamagnetic Substances: -
Substances which are weakly repelled by the external magnetic field are called diamagnetic
substances.
Ex: C6H6, H2O, NaCl
 Paramagnetic Substances: -
Substances which are weakly attracted by the external magnetic field are called paramagnetic
substances.
E Ex: O2, Cu2+, Fe3+
 Ferromagnetic Substances: -
Substances which show permanent magnetism even in the absence of magnetic field are called

ferromagnetic substances.
E EX: Fe, Ni
 Anti- Ferromagnetic Substances: -

Substances which are expected to posses’ paramagnetism and ferromagnetism on the basis of magnetic
moments of the domains but actually they posses Zero magnetic moment are called anti-
ferromagnetic substances.
Ex: MnO
 Ferromagnetic Substances: -
It is observed when the magnetic moments of the domains in the substance are aligned in parallel and
anti-parallel directions in unequal numbers. They are weakly attracted by magnetic field as compared
to ferromagnetic substances.
Ex: Fe3O4, MgFe2O4
SOLUTIONS
 Solubility
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components and its composition and
properties are uniform throughout. The two components of a solution are solvent and solute.
 Solubility
Henry’s law states that, “The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to
the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution.”
p = KH.x
where KH is Henry’s constant.
Greater the value of KH, lower is the solubility of the gas at a particular temperature. The
value of KH increases with the increase in the temperature. Indicating that the solubility of the
gas decreases with increase in temperature.
 Solution of solids in solids.
(i) Substitutional solid solutions are obtained when some particles of one solid present at
the lattice sites are replaced by the particles of the other similar solid e.g. Alloys.
(ii) Interstitial solid solutions are those in which the particles of some solid occupy the
interstitial sites or voids of other solids. E.g. WC, steel etc.
 Raoult’s law for a solution containing volatile solute (vapour pressure of liquid-liquid
solutions)
In a solution, the vapour pressure of a particular component at a given temperature is equal to
the mole fraction of that component in the solution multiplied by its vapour pressure in the
pure state.
For a binary solution containing two volatile components,
pA = pA0xA ad pB = p0BxB

The total vapour pressure P of the solution
P = pA + pB = p0AxA + p0BxB
 Raoult’s Law for solution containing non-volatile solute (vapour pressure of a solution of
solid in liquid)
The vapour pressure of solution containing a non-volatile solute at a given temperature is
equal to the product of the vapour pressure of the pure solvent and its ole fraction.
∴ P = pA = p0AxA
 Ideal solutions
Those solutions in which solute-solute (B – B) and solvent-solvent (A – A) interactions are
nearly equal to solvent-solute (A – B) interactions are called ideal solutions. These solutions
satisfy the following requirements:
(i) ΔmixH = 0
(ii) ΔmixV = 0
(iii) They obey Raoult’s law for all range of concentrations and temperature.
Examples of Ideal solutions.
Hexane + Heptane, Ethyl bromide + Ethyl chloride, Chlorobenzene + Bromobenzene,
Benzene + Toluene etc.
 Non-Ideal solutions
Those solutions in which solute-solvent interactions are of different magnitude than solute-
solute and solvent-solvent interactions are called non-ideal solutions.
For these solutions, (i) ΔmixH ≠ 0
(ii) Δmix V ≠ 0
(iii) They do not obey Raoult’s law for all concentrations. These non-ideal solutions show two
types of deviations from the ideal behaviour.
If Δmix V > 0 and Δmix > 0, then non-ideal solutions show positive deviations. In such cases,
A – B interactions are weaker than A – A or B – B interactions.
If Δmix V < 0 and Δmix H < 0, then non-ideal solutions show negative deviations. In such
cases A – B interactions are stronger than A – A or B – B interactions.
Examples of Non-ideal solutions showing positive deviations are:
Ethanol + Cyclohexane, Ethanol + Acetone, Ethanol + Water, Acetone + CS2, CCl4 + CHCl3,
Acetone + Benzene etc.
Example of Non-ideal solutions showing negative deviations are:
H2SO4 + H2O, CHCl3 + Acetone, HNO3 + water, acetic acid + pyridine, water + HCl, CHCl3
+ C6H6, CH3OH + CH3COOH.
 Azeotropes
Constant boiling mixtures (i.e., solutions which distil out without change in composition) are
called azeotropes. These behave as a pure component since both the components boil at the
same temperature. E.g.,
H2O + C2H5OH (95% of ethanol by volume); b.p. 351.15 K
H2O + HCl (20.2% of HCl)
H2O + HNO3 (68% of HNO3 by mass)
Types. These are of two types:

(a) Minimum boiling azeotropes: Azeotropes having boiling point lower than both the
components e.g. ethanol and water.
(b) Maximum boiling azeotropes: Azeotropes having boiling point higher than both the
components e.g., hydrochloric acid and water.
 Colligative Properties
The properties which depend only on the number of solute particles and not on the nature of
the solute are called colligative properties. The four colligative properties are:
(i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(ii) Elevation in boiling point
(iii) Depression in freezing point
(iv) Osmotic pressure
(i) Relative Lowering of vapour pressure. Vapour pressure of a solvent (p0) is defined
as the pressure exerted by the vapours of solvent when they are in dynamic
equilibrium with its liquid at a constant temperature. On adding a non-volatile solute
to the solvent, relative surface area available for evaporation decreases, thus vapour
pressure of such a solution(ps) is less than the pure solvent.
𝑝0 −𝑝𝑠
The ratio, is known as relative lowering in vapour pressure, where p0 = vapour
𝑝0
pressure of the pure solvent and ps = vapour pressure of the solution at the same
temperature.
According to Raoult’s law,
𝑝0 −𝑝𝑠 𝑛2
= 𝑥2 = 𝑛
𝑝0 1 +𝑛2
i.e., Relative lowering in vapour pressure of the solution is equal to mole fraction of
non-volatile solute.
 Osmosis. It is the process of flow of pure solvent from the solvent to the solution side or
from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution through a semipermeable
membrane.
Pig bladder, lining of egg and cell membrane are natural semipermeable membranes while
gelatinous precipitate of calcium phosphate, nickel silicate, copper ferrocyanide are artificial
semipermeable memberanes.
(a) Exosmosis is the outward flow of water from a cell containing an aqueous solution
through a semipermeable membrane e.g., grapes in a concentrated sugar solution.
(b) Endosmosis is the inward flow of water from a cell containing an aqueous solution
through a semipermeable membrane e.g., dried grapes in water.
 Osmotic pressure. It is the excess pressure which must be applied to the solution to prevent
osmosis.
 Biological Significance of Osmosis
Various processes taking place due to osmosis are:
(a) Absorption of water from soil through the cell walls of roots.
(b) Movement of water from roots to the upper parts of plants and trees.
(c) Various types of movements in plants like stretching of leaves, opening of flowers etc. are
also based on osmosis.

(d) Germination is also caused due to osmosis as water moves into the seeds through cell
walls.
(e) People taking a lot of salt or salty food develop swelling or puffiness of their tissues a
disease called edema. It is due to water retention in tissues and intracellular spaces
because of osmosis.
 Reverse osmosis
When external pressure applied on the solution is more than the osmotic pressure, the pure
solvent flows from the solution to the pure solvent. This phenomenon is called reverse
osmosis. It is used in the desalination of sea water to obtain fresh drinking water.
ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY
 Electrochemistry :- The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of production of
electricity from energy released during non-spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of
electrical energy to bring about non-spontaneous chemical transformations is known as
electrochemistry.
 Electrolytic Conduction :- The flow of electric current through an electrolytic solution is called
electrolytic conduction.
 Weak Electrolytes :- Those electrolytes which do no ionize completely in aqueous solution or in

molten state are called weak electrolytes. Eg. H2CO3(Carbonic Acid),CH3COOH(Acetic
Acid),HgCl2(Mercuric Chloride) . They have small degree of ionization.
 Strong Electrolytes :- Those electrolytes which disassociate completely into ions are called
strong electrolytes. Eg. NaCl,HCl,NaOH.
 Degree Of Ionization :- It is the ratio of number of ions produced to the total number of
molecules of electrolyte.
 Ohm’s Law :- It states that , the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference(V) applied across the two ends of the conductor.
Mathematically, V = IR(R  Resistance)
 Conductance :- The ease with which current flows through the electrolyte. It is reciprocal of
resistance. [ C = 1/R ]. The unit of conductance is Siemens (S) [ i.e. 1S = 1 ohm-1(Ω-1) ].
 Specific Resistivity :- If a solution is place between 2 parallel electrodes having cross-sectional

area (A) and distance (l) apart, then [ R = ρ(l/A) ] where ρ is resistivity. The unit of resistivity is
ohm cm (Ω cm).

 Specific Conductivity :- It is the conductance of the solution of an electrolyte enclosed in a cell
with two electrodes of unit area of cross-section separated by one cm. It is denoted by kappa(k)
and its unit is ohm-1 cm-1(Ω-1 cm-1) or S cm-1. [ k = C(l/A) ] where C is conductance.
 Molar Conductivity :- It is defined as the conducting power of all the ions produced by one gram
mole of an electrolyte in a solution. It is denoted by (Λm) and its unit is S cm2 mol-1.
 Equivalent Conductance :- It is the conductance of all ions produced by one gram equivalent of
electrolyte in solution and it is denoted by (Λeq ).
 Cell Constant :- It is the ratio of distance between electrode(l) to the cross-sectional area between
them. [ Cell Constant = l/A in cm-1 or m-1 ].
 Debye Huckel Onsager Equation :- It gives a relation between molar conductivity (Λm) at a
particular concentration and molar conductivity (Λm) at infinite dilution.
[ Λm = Λ0m - A√C ]
 Koulrausch’s Law :- Acc. To this law, molar conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite dilution is
the sum of the limiting molar ionic conductivities of the cations and anions each multiplied by the
number of ions present in one formula unit of the electrolyte.
e.g. , AxBy. [Λ0m = x λ0+ + y λ0-].
 Degree Of Disassociation :- It is the ratio of molar conductivity at a specific concentration ‘C’ to

the molar conductivity at infinite dilution. It is denoted by α.
i.e. [ α = ΛCm / Λ∞m ].
 Electro Chemical Equivalent :- It is the amount of substance deposited when 1 Ampere current
is passed for 1 Second, i.e. when 1 coulomb of charge is passed. Its unit is g C-1.
 Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis :- The amount of substance deposited during electrolysis is
directly proportional to quantity of electricity passed.
[ m = Zit ] where ‘Z’ is electrochemical equivalent.
 Faraday’s Second Law Of Electrolysis :- It states that when same amount of electricity is
passed through different electrolytes, the amount of different substances deposited at the
electrodes is directly proportional to their equivalent weights.

 Types Of Cells :-
1. Daniell Cell :- It consists of a zinc rod dipped in zinc sulphate solution acts as the
oxidation half cell. In the Reduction half cell, the copper vessel itself acts as the cathode
while the saturated solution of copper sulphate acts as electrolyte. Both the solutions are
kept apart by taking zinc sulphate in a porous pot and putting it in a copper sulphate
solution containing bath.
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
2. Electrolytic Cell :- The cell in which electrolysis of electrolytes is carried out in an

aqueous solution or in molten state by passing electric current through it ic called an
electrolytic cell.
3. Galavnic/Voltaic Cell :- The cell in which electricity is produced as a result of a chemical

reaction is called a Galvanic Cell.
 Electrode Potential :- It is the potential difference between set up between the metal and the
solution of its ions. It gives the tendency of an electrode to either gain or lose electrons. When the
concentration of all the species involved in a half-cell is unity then the electrode potential is called
standard electrode potential.
 Standard Hydrogen Electrode :- It is used as a ref. electrode. It consists of a platinum wire

coated with finely divided platinum black. It is dipped in acidic solution. Pure hydrogen gas is
passed at 1 bar pressure in the solution of HCl (1 M) so as to maintain equilibrium between H+
ions and H2 gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g)
 Cell Potential or EMF :- The Difference between the electrode potential of the two electrodes of
a galvanic cell is called cell potential and is measured in volts. It is called the cell electromotive
force (E.M.F) when no current is drawn through the cell.
Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode or Eright - Eleft

 Electrochemical Series :- The arrangement of various electrodes in order of increasing reduction
potential values is called electrochemical series.
 Nernst Equation :- It gives a relationship between the electrode potential and ionic
concentration of the electrolytic solution.
Mn+ + ne-  M(s)  E = E0 – RT/ nF [ ln [M] / [Mn+]
E = E0 – 0.059/n [ log 1 / [Mn+]

 Primary Cells :- Primary cells are those cells in which electrode reactions cannot be reversed by
external energy source. These become dead after use over a period of time.
E.g. :- Dry Cell or Leclanche Cell , mercury cell
 Secondary Cells :- Secondary cells are those cells which can be recharged by passing current
through it in opposite direction so that they can be used again .
E.g. :- Ample, Lead Storage Battery, Nickel-Cadmium cell.
 Fuel Cells :- These are voltaic cells in which the reactants are continuously supplied to the
electrodes. These are designed to convert the energy from combustion of fuel such as H2 ,
CH3OH, CH4 etc. directly into electrical energy.
 Corrosion :- It is the deterioration of a metal as a result of it reaction with air or water
surrounding it. Corrosion of iron is called rusting.
 Galvanisation :- It is the process of coating zinc over iron so as to protect it from rusting.
 Cathodic Protection or Sacrificial Protection :- In this method, the exposed iron surface is
protected by connecting it to some more reactive metal like zinc or aluminium. The more reactive
metal acts as anode and loses electrons to in preference to iron.
 Cell Equations :-
1. Dry Cell :-
Anode: Zn(s)  Zn2+ + 2e–
Cathode: MnO2+ NH4++ e–  MnO (OH) + NH3
2. Mercury Cell :-
Anode: Zn(Hg) + 2OH–  ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e–
Cathode: HgO + H2O + 2e–  Hg(l) + 2OH–
Overall : Zn (Hg) + HgO(s)  ZnO(s) + Hg(l)
3. Lead Storage Battery :-

Anode: Pb(s) + SO42–(aq)  PbSO4(s) + 2e–
Cathode: PbO2(s) + SO42–(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e–  PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)
Overall : Pb(s)+PbO2(s)+2H2SO4(aq)  2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
4. Nickel-Cadmium Cell :-
Cd (s)+2Ni(OH)3 (s)  CdO (s) +2Ni(OH)2 (s) +H2O(l)
5. Hydrogen Fuel Cell :-

Cathode: O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e–  4OH–(aq)
Anode: 2H2 (g) + 4OH–(aq)  4H2O(l) + 4e–
Overall : 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)

 Differentiation :-
S.No Metallic Conduction Electrolytic Conduction

1
Electric current flows by Electric current flows by movement
movement of electrons. of ions.
2 No chemical change occurs. Ions are oxidized or reduced at the

electrodes.
3 It does not involve the transfer It involves transfer of matter in the

of any matter. form of ions.
4 Resistance increases with Resistance decreases with increase of

increase of temperature. temperature.
5 Faraday law is not followed. Faraday law is followed.

Electrolytic Cell Galvanic cell
Electrical energy is converted into chemical Chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy. energy.
Anode positive electrode. Cathode negative Anode negative electrode. Cathode positive
electrode electrode.
Ions are discharged on both the electrodes. Ions are discharged only on the cathode
If the electrodes are inert, concentration of the Concentration of the anodic half-cell increases
electrolyte decreases when the electric current is while that of cathodic half-cell decreases when
circulated the two electrodes are joined by a wire
Both the electrodes can be fitted in the same The electrodes are fitted in different
compartment compartment
CHEMICAL KINETICS
 Rate of reaction. It is the change in concentration of the reactants or products in unit time. It
is expressed in mol L-1s-1 or M s-1 units.
 Factors on which rate of reaction depends
(i) Concentration (ii) Temperature (iii) Nature of reactants (iv) Presence of a catalyst and (v)
Exposure to radiations.
 Law of Mass action (LMA)

According to the law of mass action, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to
the each term raised to the power of its stoichiometric co-efficient e.g. consider
aA + bB → Products
Rate ∝ [A] . [B]b
a
Rate = k [A]a . [B]b

 Rate law is a mathematical expression in which the reaction rate is given in terms of molar
concentration of reactants with each term raised to some power, which may or may not be the
same as the stoichiometric coefficient of the reacting species in a balanced chemical equation.
It is determined experimentally and cannot be written from balanced chemical equation.
 Rate constant. It may be defined as the rate of reaction when the molar concentration of the
reactants is taken to be unity.
 Order of Reaction. Order is defined as the sum of powers of the concentration of the
reactants in the rate equation or rate law. Order of reaction is experimentally determined and
is not written from the balanced chemical equation. Order of reaction can be whole number,
zero or fractional.
 Zero order reactions.
(a) Photosynthesis of HCl
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
0 0
Rate = k [H2] [Cl2]
Order = Zero
The rate of reaction depends only on the intensity of light.
(b) Decomposition of ammonia on the surface of a catalyst.
 Molecularity. The number of reacting species (i.e. atoms, ions or molecules) which ust
collide simultaneously in a step leading to a chemical reaction is known as molecularity of the
reaction.
 Elementary reactions. The reactions taking place in one step are called elementary reactions.
when a sequence of elementary reactions gives in the products, the reactions are called
complex reactions.
 Pseudo first order reaction. Reactions which are of higher order but becomes reaction of the
first order under certain conditions are called Pseudo first order reactions e.g. Hydrolysis of
ester.
Rate = k’[CH3COOC2H5] [H2O]
Since [H2O] is constant. So
Rate = k [CH3COOC2H.]
where k = k’ [H2O]
 Initial Rate method to find order of a reaction.
This method can be used irrespective of the number of reactants involved e.g., consider the
reaction,
n1A + n2B + n3C → Products
The method consist in finding the intial rate of the reaction by taking known concentrations of
the different reactant (A, B, C). Now the concentration of one of the reactants is changed (say
that of A) taking the concentrations of other reactants (B and C) same as before. The initial

rate of the reaction is determined again. This gives the rate expression with respect to A and
hence the order w.r.t. A. The experiment is repeated by changing the concentration of B and
taking the same concentrations of A and C and finally changing the concentration of C and
taking the same concentrations of A and B. These will give rate expressions w.r.t. B and C
and hence the orders w.r.t B and C respectively. Combining the different rate expressions, the
overall rate expression and hence the overall order can be obtained.
 Integrated Rate Law Method to find order of reaction. This is the most common method
for studying the kinetics of a chemical reaction.
The values of a, x and t are determined and substituted in the kinetic equations of various
orders. The equation which gives the most constant value for the specific reaction rate (k) for
different time intervals is the one corresponding to the order of reaction.
 General Expression for Half Life for reaction of different order
The time during which the concentration of a reactant is reduced to one half of its initial
concentration is called half life of the reaction.
 Activated complex (or Transition state). Activated complex is the highest energy unstable
intermediate state between the reactants and products and get decomposed immediately to
give the products. In this bonds of reactants are not fully broken while the bonds of products
are not fully formed.
Energy of activated complex = Energy of reactants + activation energy
 Temperature coefficient. It is the ratio of rate constants of a reaction at two temperatures
differing by 100. Temperatures selected are usually 298 K and 308 K.
𝑘𝑇 +10
Temperature coefficient (γ) = 𝑘𝑇
 Threshold energy. The minimum amount of energy which the reactant molecules must
possess in order that the collision between them may be effective is known as threshold
energy.
o Activation energy. The minimum extra amount of energy required by the reactants to
form the activated complex is known as activation energy.
o Threshold energy = Energy of reactants + Activation energy
 Collision Frequency. The number of collisions between the reacting molecules taking place
per second per unit volume is known as collision frequency (Z).
 Effective Collisions. The collisions in which molecules collide with sufficient kinetic energy
(called threshold energy) and proper orientation so as to result in a chemical reaction are
called effective collisions.
𝑑𝑥
Rate = − 𝑑𝑡 = Collision frequency × fraction of effective collisions × Probability factor
i.e., Rate = Z × 𝑒 −𝐸𝑎 /𝑅𝑇 × P
 Boltzmann factor. The term 𝑒 −𝐸𝑎/𝑅𝑇 in the Arrhenius equation gives the fraction of
molecules having energy equal to or greater than the activation energy. It is called Boltzmann
factor.
 Photochemical reaction. Certain reactions are found to occur on exposure to visible
radiation. Such reactions are called photochemical reactions.
 SOME NOTWWORTHY POINTS (USEFUL TIPS)

o Order can change with the conditions such as pressure, temperature etc., whereas
molecularity is invariant for a chemical equation.
o Order may or may not be equal to molecularity. For zero order reaction, t1/2 is
independent of the initial conc. Of the reactant.
HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

 Stereochemistry - the branch of chemistry which deals with the spatial arrangement of atoms
or group of atoms in a molecule is called stereochemistry.
 Stereoisomers – Isomers that have same sequence of covalent bonds but differ in the relative
positions of their atoms in space.
 Asymmetric carbon or chiral centre or stereocentre – A sp^3-hybridised carbon atom
having four different types of substituents is called asymmetric carbon or chiral centre or
stereocentre.
 A chiral molecule cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. A chiral molecule does not
have any element of symmetry (plane of symmetry, centre of symmetry, alternate axis of
symmetry). On the other hand, a molecule which can be superimposed on its mirror image is
called achiral.
1-Bromo-1-chloroethane
 Light which have all its oscillations in the same plane is called plane polarised light.
 Compounds which rotate the plane polarised light in a characteristic way are called optically
active compounds.
 Specific rotation–The angle through which the plane of the polarised light is rotated after
passing through the given sample is called observed rotation, αobs. The rotating power of an
optically active substance is generally expressed in terms of specific rotation.
[α] = Observed rotation(αobs) x Concentration of solution (gmL^-1)

___________________________________________________
Length of tube (dm)
 Angle of rotation depends upon concentration, nature of solvent used, length of tube,
temperature and wavelength of light used.
 Optical isomerism – Different forms of a compound which resemble in their chemical and
most physical properties but differ in their behaviour towards the plane polarised light are
called optical isomers and the phenomenon is called optical isomerism.

 Enantiomers and diastereomers – Stereoisomers related to each other as non-
superimposable mirror images are called enantiomers. Enantiomers rotate the plane of
polarised light in opposite directions but to equal extent.
 Pair of enantiomers of1-bromo-1-chloroethane

 Stereoisomers which are not related to each other as mirror images are called diastereomers.
 Racemic mixture -- A mixture containing equal amounts of both the enantiomers is called a
racemic mixture or racemic modification. A racemic mixture is optically inactive. The
process of conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is called racemisation.
 Meso compound – The maximum number of possible stereoisomers for n centres of chirality
= 2^n. However, this rule does not hold when the molecule contains two or more analogous
(similar) centres of chirality. In such compounds with n = 2, only three stereoisomers are
formed- ad, l- pair and a meso compound.A meso compound is an optically inactive
stereoisomer which is achiral. For e.g. different optical isomers of tartaric acid (a compound
with two similar centres of chirality) are as follows:
 Retention - Retention of configuration is the preservation of integrity of the spatial

arrangement of bonds to an asymmetric centre during a chemical reaction or transformation. It
is also the configurational correlation when a chemical species XCabc is converted into the
chemical species YCabc having the same relative configuration.
 In general, if during a reaction no bond to the stereocentre is broken, the product will have the
same general configuration of groups around the
stereocentre as that of reactant. Such a reaction is said to
proceed with retention of the configuration.
 Inversion,retention and racemisation – There are
three outcomes for a reaction at an asymmetric carbon
atom. Consider the replacement of a group X by Y in
the following reaction:
 If (A) is the only compound obtained, the process is
called retention.
 If (B) is the only compound obtained, the process is
called inversion.

ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
HOOC – CH2 – COOH Malonic acid

HOOC – [CH2]2 – COOH Succinic acid
HOOC – [CH2]3 – COOH Glutaric acid
HOOC – [CH2]4 – COOH Adipic acid
1. Benzaldehyde has smell in bitter almonds.
2. Acetophenone is used in perfumery andn in medicine as hypnotic.
3. In reactionof aldehydes and ketones with ammonia derivatives, the medium should be
slightly acidic (pH = 4.5). in too highly acidic medium, ammonia derivatives being basis
will from salts and will not act as nucleophile.
4. Order of decreasing acidity of carboxylic acids:
CF3COOH > CCl3COOH > CHCl2COOH > NO2COOH > NO2CH2COOH > NC –
CH2COOH > FCH2COOH > ClCH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > HCOOH >
ClCH2CH2COOH > C6H5COOH > C6H5CH2COOH > CH3COOH > CH3CH2COOH.
5. Benzoic acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.
(i) Cyaohydrin: Compounds possessing hydroxyl and cyano groups on the same carbon
atom i.e., gem-hydroxynitriles are called cyanohydrins. These are produced by
addition of HCN to aldehydes or ketones in weakly basic medium.
(ii) Acetal : Compounds in which the two alkoxy groups are present on the terminal
carbon atom are called acetals. These are produced by the action of an aldehyde with
two equivalents of a monohydric alcohol in presence of dry HCl gas.
These acetals can be easily hydrolysed by dilute mineral acids to give back the original
aldehydes. Therefore, these are used for the protection of aldehyde group in organinc
synthesis.
(iii) Semicarbazone: These are derivatives of aldehydes and ketones and are produced by
actionof semicarbazide on them in weakly acidic medium.
These are used for identification and characterizationof aldehydes and ketones.
(iv) Aldol: Aldol, as the name suggests, is a alcoholic group. Aldols are β-
hydroxyladehydes and are produced by the condensation of two molecules of the same
or one molecule each of two different aldehydes (at least one of which contains an α-
hydrogen) in presence of a dilute aqueous base such as NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2 etc.
(v) Hemiacetal: Heiacetals are gem-alkxyalcohols. These are produced by addition of one
molecule of a moohydric alcohol to an aldehyde in presence of dry HCl gas.
(vi) Oxime: Oximes are derivatives of aldehydes and ketones. These are produced when
aldehydes or ketones react with hydroxylamine in weakly acidic medium.
(vii) Ketal: Ketals are gem-dialkoxyalkanes. In ketals, the two alkoxy groups are present
on the same carbon within the chain. These are produced when a ketone is heated with
ethylene glycol in presence of dry HCl gas or p-toluenesulphonic acid (PTS)
These are easily hydrolysed by dilute mineral acids to regenerate the original ketones.
Therefore, ketals are used for protectionof keto groups in organic synthesis.
(viii) Imine: Nucleophilic addition of ammonia to aliphatic aldehydes (except
formaldehyde) in ether followed by dehydration gives anines.

(ix) 2, 4-DNP derivative: These are produced when aldehydes or ketones react with 2, 4-
dinitrophenylhydrazine in weakly acidic medium.
Acetaldehyde -2, 4-dinitrophenyl hydrazine These 2, 4-DNP derivatives are insoluble,
yellow, orange or red solids. These are used for characterization of aldehydes and
ketones
(x) Schiff’s base: Substituted iines are called Schiff’s bases. Aldehydes and ketones react
with primary aliphatic or aromatic amines to form Schiff’s bases.
BIOMOLECULES
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compounds

which produce such units on hydrolysis. For example, glucose, C6H12O6; sucrose, C12H22O11; starch
(C6H12O6)n etc.
Classification of Carbohydrates:
Sugars and non-sugars: Carbohydrates which are sweet in taste are called sugars while others are
called non-sugars.
(i) Monosaccharides: A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to give simpler unit of
polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide.
(ii) Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis,
are called oligosaccharides.
(iii) Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis are called polysaccharides. Some common example are starch, cellulose,
glycogen, gums, etc.
Reducing and non-reducing sugars: All those carbohydrates which reduce Fehling;s solution and
Tollens’ reagent are referred to as reducing sugars. All monosaccharides whether aldose or ketose are
reducing sugars.
In disaccharides, if the reducing groups of monosaccharides i.e., aldehydic or ketonic groups are
bonded, these are non-reducing sugars e.g. sucrose. On the other hand, sugars in which these
functional groups are free, are called reducing sugars, for example, maltose and lactose.
Significance of D and L in the name of a compound: The letters ‘D’ or ‘L’ before the name of any
compound indicate the relative configuration of a particular stereoisomer. This refers to their relation
with a particular isomer of glyceraldehydes. Glyceraldehydes contains one asymmetric carbon atom
and exists in two enantiomeric forms. All those compounds which can be chemically correlated to (+)
isomer of glyceraldehydes are said to have D-configuration whereas those which can be correlated to
(-) isomer of glyceraldehydes are said to have L-configuration. For assigning the configuration of
monosaccharides, it is the lowest asymmetric carbon atom (as shown below) which is compared. As
in (+) glyceraldehydes, so it is assigned D-configuration. For this comparison, the structure is written
in a way that most oxidized carbon is at the top. It should be noted that the symbols ‘D’ and ‘L’ have
no relation with the optical activity of the compound.
 Pyranose structure of glucose: The two cyclic hemiacetal forms of glucose differ only in
the configuration of the hydroxyl group at C-1, called anomeric carbon (the aldehyde
carbon before cyclisation). Such isomers, i.e., α-form and β-form, are called anomers. The
six membered cyclic structure of glucose is called pyranose structure (α – or β – ), in
analogy with pyran.
 Importance of Carbohydrates
(i) Carbohydrates form a major portion of our food in the form of glucose, sucrose
starch (wheat, rice, potato etc.).
(ii) Carbohydrates, especially cellulose, in the form grass etc., form a major
portion of food for grazing animals like cow, sheep etc.
(iii) Cellulose in the form of wood is used for making furniture, houses etc. by us.
(iv) Cellulose in the form of cotton is used for making clothes etc.’
(v) Carbohydrates have an important role in living organisms (plants and animals)
as discussed below:
(i) As structural material. Cellulose is the chief structural material of plant cell
walls.
(ii) As a biofuel. Carbohydrates such as glucose, starch, glycogen etc., provide
energy for functioning of living organism.
(iii) As reserve food material. Starch is the reserve food material of plants and
glycogen is the reserve food material of animals.
(iv) In nucleic acid RNA and DNA. RNA contains ribose (a carbohydrate) and
DNA contains 2-deoxyribose (a carbohydrate).
 PROTEINS
 Classification of amino acids
(i) Acidic, basic and neutral amino acids. Amino acids are classified as acidic, basic
or neutral depending upon the relative number of amino and carboxyl groups in
their molecule. Equal number of amino and carboxyl groups makes it neutral; more
number of amino than carboxyl groups makes it basic and more carboxyl groups
makes it basic and more carboxyl groups as compared to amino groups makes it
acidic.
(ii) Essential and non-essential amino acids. The amino acids, which can be
synthesized in the body, are known as non-essential amino acids. On the other
hand, those which cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained through
diet, are known as essential amino acids. The 10 essential amino acids are; Valine,
Leucine, Isoleucine, Arginine, Lysine, Threonin, Methionine, Pherylalanine,
Trytophan and Histidine. The 10 non-essential amino acids are Glycine, Alnine,
Glutamine. Asparagine, Serine, Cysteine, Tyrosine and Proline.
o Denaturation of proteins: Protein found in a biological system with a unique
three-dimensional structure and biological activity is called a native protein.
When a protein in its native form, is subjected to physical change like change
in temperature or chemical change like change in pH, the hydrogen bonds are
disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and helix get uncoiled and protein loses
its biological activity. This is called denaturation of protein. During

denaturation 2 and 3 structures are destroyed but 10 structure remains intact.
0 0
The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation.

Another examples is curdling of milk which is caused due to the formation of
lactic acid by the bacteria present in milk.
 VITAMINS
Organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological
functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism are called
vitamins.
 Classification of vitamins: Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon
their solubility in water or fat.
(i) Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in
water are kept in this group. These are vitamins A, D, E and K. They are stored in
liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
(ii) Water soluble vitamins: B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so
they are grouped together. Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet
because they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12)
in our body.
 HORMONES
Hormones are molecules that act as intercellular messengers. These are produced by
endocrine glands in the body and are poured directly in the blood stream which transports
them to the site of action.
In terms of chemical nature, some of these are steroids, e.g., estrogens and androgens; some
are poly peptides for example insulin and endorphins and some others are amino acid
derivatives such as epinephrine and norephinephrine.
Hormones have several functions in the body. They help of maintain the balance of
biological activities in the body. The role of insulin in keeping the blood glucose level
within the narrow limit is an example of this function. Insulin is released in response to the
rapid rise in blood glucose level. On the other hand hormone glucagon tends to increase the
glucose level in the blood. The two hormones together regulate the glucose level in the
blood. Epinephrine and norepinephrine mediate responses to external stimuli. Growth
hormones and sex hormones play role in growth and development. Thyroxine produced in
the thyroid gland is an iodinated derivative of amino acid tyrosine.
SOME NOTEWORTHY POINTS (USEFUL TIPS)
 In the ring structures of monosaccharides if – OH group at C1 is to the right (or below the
plane of the ring) it in assigned α –configuration and if the – OH group at C1 is to the left
(or above the plane of the ring) it is assigned β-configuration.
POLYMERS
Classification based on growth polymerization

(a) Chain growth polymers: In this type, the monomer is added to the growing chain one at
a time. The process used to obtain these type of polymers is called chain growth

polymerization and requires an initiator such as benzoyl peroxide. This type of polymers
were previously known as addition polymers.
(b) Step growth polymers: This type of polymers are obtained from bi- or polyfunctional
monomers containing – NH2, - OH, - COOH groups. The process used to obtain these type
of polymers is called step growth polymerization. This occurs in a step-wise manner
generally with the elimination of smaller molecules such as H2O, NH3, HCl etc. this type
of polymers were previously known as condensation polymers.
Natural rubber
Vulcanization of rubber: Natural rubber becomes soft at high temperature (> 335 K) and
brittle at low temperatures (< 283 K) and shows high water absorption capacity. It is soluble
in non-polar solvents and is non-resistant to attack by oxidizing agents. To improve upon
these physical properties, a process of vulcanization is carried out. This process consists of
heating amixture of raw rubber with sulphur and an appropriate additive at a temperature
range between 373 K to 415 K. On vulcanization, sulphur forms cross links at the reactive
sites of double bonds and thus the rubber gets stiffened.
In the manufacture of tyre rubber, 5% of sulphur is used as a crosslinking agent. The probable
structures of vulcanized rubber molecules are given ahead:
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
 DRUGS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses ( ~ 100 -500 μ). These interact with
macromolecular targets and produce a biological response.
A chemical whose biological response is therapeutic and useful is called a medicine.
Medicines are used in diagnose, prevention and treatment of diseases. If taken in dose
higher than those recommended, most of the drugs used as medicines are potential poisons.
Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called chemotherapy.
 Drug – Target Interaction
Proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body are called enzymes.
Proteins which are crucial to communication system in the body are called receptors.
Drugs inhibit any of the above mentioned activities of enzymes. These can block the
binding site of the enzyme and prevent the binding of substrate, or can inhibit the
catalytic activity of the enzyme. Such drugs are called enzyme inhibitors.
(i) Drugs compete with the natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites of
enzymes. Such drugs are called competitive inhibitors.
(ii) Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s active site. These bind to a different site of
enzyme which is called allosteric site. This binding of inhibitor at allosteric site
changes the shape of the active site in such a way that substrate cannot recognize it.
Receptors are proteins that are crucial to body’s communication process.
Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function are called
antagonists. These are useful when blocking of message is required. There are

other types of drugs that mimic or copy the natural messenger by switching on
the receptor, these are called agonists.
 Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs
1. Antacids: Conventional treatment for acidity was administration of antacids, such as
sodium hydrogencarbonate [NaHCO3] or a mixture of aluminium and magnesium
hydroxide. [Al(OH)3 + Mg(OH)2.
Histamine, stimulates the secretion of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
The drug cimetidine (Tegamet), was designed to prevent the interaction of histamine
with the receptors present in the stomach wall. This resulted in release of lesser
amount of acid. Another modern antacid of this type is ranitidine (Zantac)
2. Antihistamines: Histamine performs various functions in our body. For example; (a)
it is a potent vasodilator, (b) it contracts the smooth muscles in the bronchi and gut and
relaxes other muscles, such as those in the walls of fine blood vessels (c) it is also
responsible for the nasal congestion associated with common cold and allergic
response to pollen.
Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane), act as
antihistamines. They interfere with the natural action of histamine by competing with
histamine for binding sites of receptor where histamine exerts its effect.
These antihistamines do not affect the secretion of acid in stomach because antiallergic
and antacid drugs work on different receptors.
3. Neurologically active drugs: Tranquilizers and analgesics are neurologically active
drugs. These affect the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
(a) Tranquilizers: Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used for the
treatment of stress, and mild or even severe mental diseases. These relieve
anxiety, stress, irritability or excitement by inducing a sense of well-being.
Noradrenaline is one of the neurotransmitters that plays a role in mood changes. If
the level of noradrenaline is low for some reason, then the signal-sending activity
becomes low, and the person suffers from depression. In wuch situations,
antidepressant drugs are required. These drugs inhibit the enzymes which
catalyse the degradation of noradrenaline. If the enzyme is inhibited, this
important neurotransmitter is slowly metabolized and can activate its receptor for
longer periods of time, thus counteracting the effect of depression. Iproniazid and
phenelzine are two such drugs.
Some tranquilizers namely, chlordiazepoxide and meprobamate, are relatively
mild tranquilizers suitable for relieving tension. Equanil is used in controlling
depression and hypertension.
Derivatives of barbituric acid such as veronal, amytal, Nembutal, luminal and
seconal constitute an important class of tranquilizers. These derivatives are called
barbiturates. Barbiturates are hypnotic, i.e., sleep producing agents. Some other
substances used as tranquilizers are valium and serotonin.
(a) Analgesics: Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of
consciousness, mental confusion, incoordination r paralysis or some other
disturbances of nervous system.

These are classified as follows:
(i) Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics
(ii) Narcotic drugs
(i) Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics: Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of
non-narcotic analgesics. Aspirin is the most familiar example. Aspirin inhibits the
synthesis of chemicals known as prostaglandins which stimulate inflammation in the
tissue and cause pain. These drugs are effective in relieving skeletal pain such as that due
to arthritis.
These drugs have many other effects such as reducing fever (antipyretic) and preventing
platelet coagulation. Because of its anti blood clotting action, aspirin finds use in
prevention of heart attacks.
(ii) Narcotic drugs: Morphine and many of its momologues, when administered in medicinal
doses, relieve pain and produce sleep. In poisonous doeses, these produce stupor, coma,
convulsions and ultimately death. Morphine narcotis are sometimes referred to as opiates,
since they are obtained from the opium poppy.
These analgesics are chiefly used for the relief of postoperative pain, cardiac pain and
pains of terminal cancer, and in child birth.
Antimicrobials: An antimicrobial tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the pathogenic

action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antibacterial
drugs), or other parasites (antiparasitic drugs) selectively. Antibiotics antiseptics and disinfectants are
antimicrobial drugs.
(a) Antibiotics: an antibiotic is defined as a substance produced wholly or partly by chemical

synthesis, which in low concentration inhibits the growth or destroy micro-organisms by
intervening in their metabolic processes.
The first chemical that would adversely affect invading bacteria but not the host was
arsphenamine (known as Salvarsan) developed by German bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich. It was
the first effective treatment discovered for syphilis. There is similarity in structures of
salvarsan and azodyes. The first effective antibacterial agent, prontosil, which resembles in
structure to the compound, salvarsan.
Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on microbes. A few
examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows:
Bactericidal Bacteriostatic
Penicillin Erythromycin
Aminoglycosides Tetracycline
Ofloxacin Chloramphenicol
Antibiotics which ill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are said to
be broad spectrum antibiotics.
Those effective mainly against Gram-positive or Gram negative bacteria are narrow spectrum
antibiotics. If effective against a single organism or disease, they are referred to as limited spectrum
antibiotics.

(a) Antiseptics and disinfectant: Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which
either kill or prevent the growth of micro-organisms.
(b) Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin
surfaces. Examples are furacine, soframicine, etc. These are not ingested like antibiotics.
Commoly used antiseptic, dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol. Bithionol (the
compound is also called bithional) is added to soaps to impart antiseptic properties. Iodine is
a powerful antiseptic. Its 2-3 per cent solution in alcohol-water mixture is known as tincture
of iodine. It is applied on wounds. Iodoform is also used as an antiseptic for wounds. Boric
acid in dilute aqueous solution is weak antiseptic for eyes.
(c) Disinfectants are applied to inanimate or non-living objects such as floors, drainage system,
instruments, etc. same substances can act as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant by varying
the concentration. For example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its one
percent solution is disinfectant.
1. Antifertility Drugs: These drugs are used to control population by preventing conception.
Birth control pills (e.g., Mala-D) used by ladies essentially contain a mixture of synthetic
estrogen and progesterone derivatives. Both of these compounds are hormones. It is known
that progesterone suppresses ovulation. Norethindrone is an example of synthetic
progesterone derivative most widely used as ant fertility drug. The estrogen derivative which
is used in combination with progesterone derivative is ethynylestradiol (non-vestrol).
 CHEMICALS IN FOOD
Chemical are added to food for (i) their preservation (ii) enhancing their appeal, and (iii) adding
nutritive value in them.
******

Compilation of DUDE and Name Reactions 2

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Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

THE SOLID STATE

1 Regular internal arrangement of irregular internal arrangement of particles

2 Sharp melting point Melt over a rage of temperature

3 Regarded as true solids Regarded as super cooled liquids or pseudo solids

4 Undergo regular cut Undergo irregular cut.

5 Anisotropic in nature Isotropic in nature

 Based on binding forces:

 Coordination number: The number of spheres touching to a particular sphere.

Bcc 2 r = (√3/4)a 68%

Simple cubic lattice 1 r = a/2 52.4%

 Density of crystal lattice:

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

 Octahedral and Tetrahedral Voids:

 Imperfection and defects in solids

These are classified as:

1. Metal Excess defect:

2. Metal deficiency defect:

 Electrical properties of solids

 Magnetic properties of solids: -

Ex: C6H6, H2O, NaCl

E Ex: O2, Cu2+, Fe3+

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

 Anti- Ferromagnetic Substances: -

Ex: Fe3O4, MgFe2O4

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

 Weak Electrolytes :- Those electrolytes which do no ionize completely in aqueous solution or in

 Specific Resistivity :- If a solution is place between 2 parallel electrodes having cross-sectional

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

 Degree Of Disassociation :- It is the ratio of molar conductivity at a specific concentration ‘C’ to

[ m = Zit ] where ‘Z’ is electrochemical equivalent.

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

2. Electrolytic Cell :- The cell in which electrolysis of electrolytes is carried out in an

3. Galavnic/Voltaic Cell :- The cell in which electricity is produced as a result of a chemical

 Standard Hydrogen Electrode :- It is used as a ref. electrode. It consists of a platinum wire

Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode or Eright - Eleft

Mn+ + ne-  M(s)  E = E0 – RT/ nF [ ln [M] / [Mn+]

E = E0 – 0.059/n [ log 1 / [Mn+]

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

Overall : Zn (Hg) + HgO(s)  ZnO(s) + Hg(l)

3. Lead Storage Battery :-

Overall : Pb(s)+PbO2(s)+2H2SO4(aq)  2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

5. Hydrogen Fuel Cell :-

Overall : 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

S.No Metallic Conduction Electrolytic Conduction

2 No chemical change occurs. Ions are oxidized or reduced at the

3 It does not involve the transfer It involves transfer of matter in the

4 Resistance increases with Resistance decreases with increase of

5 Faraday law is not followed. Faraday law is followed.

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

Rate = k [A]a . [B]b

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

[α] = Observed rotation(αobs) x Concentration of solution (gmL^-1)

Length of tube (dm)

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

 Pair of enantiomers of1-bromo-1-chloroethane

 Retention - Retention of configuration is the preservation of integrity of the spatial

Sunil Kumar Sharma 9212318283

HOOC – CH2 – COOH Malonic acid