FOR CLASS XII OF HIGHER

SECONDARY
HELLO
As per Hsslive Broadcast No:151, I want to dedicate this
note for the students who lost his/her reference notes
due to floods in Kerala. I will provide essential notes as
PDF through which students can achieve important
points in each chapters for their half yearly examination.
ELVIN CZ Suggestions for improvement of this note will be
gratefully accepted.
BSC CHEMISTRY
Thank you.
ASSABAH ARTS AND SCIENCE
COLLEGE, VALAYAMKULAM

MOB: 9947908491

EMAIL: elvinzacharia@gmail.com
Based on the arrangement of the particles

Solids

Crystalline Amorphous
Solids Solids
(Anisotropic) (Isotropic)

Crystalline Solids(Anisotropic) Amorphous Solids(Isotropic)

 Crystalline solids are arranged in orderly
manner and extends over the entire
crystal
 They have high melting point
 They have definite heat of fusion and
regular cleavage
 Amorphous solids are not arranged in
orderly manner. They have no long range
order
 They do not have definite heat of fusion
and regular cleavage
 Physical properties are different in
different direction

Eg : NaCl , Diamond, Quartz metals Eg: Glass,Plastics,Rubber,Starch,Proteins

Page 1 of 22
 Based on binding forces and nature of constituent particles

1.Molecular
Solids

4.Metallic Crystalline 2.Ionic

Solids
Solids Solids

3.Covalent
Solids

Crystal type Constitute Main bonding Properties Examples

Particle forces
1. Molecular
Solids
(i)Non Polar Non Polar Dispersion or Soft, low melting Solid H2, I2,
Molecules London forces insulators CO2, CCl4, Ar
(ii) Polar Polar Dipole-Dipole Soft, low melting Solid HCl , SO2
Molecules Interactions insulators

(iii)Hydrogen Molecules Hydrogen Hard, low melting Ice, Solid NH3

Bonded Bonding insulators

Page 2 of 22
2 IonicSolids Positive Strong Brittle, high Salts like
and electro melting, poor NaCl, KNO3,
Negative static conductors of heat LiF, BaSO4, etc
ions forces and electricity in ..
solid state
3 Covalent or Atoms Covalent bond Hard, high melting, poor Diamond,
network solids silicon, quartz,
conductors of heat and
SiC, AIN,
electricity
Graphite

4 Metallic Positive Metallic Good conductors All metals

Solids ions and bond of heat and and alloys
mobile electricity, Some
electrons are soft while
many are hard

Space Lattice/Crystal Lattice

Regular arrangement of constituent particles of crystal in 3 dimensional space is called
space lattice

UNIT CELL

A unit cell may be defined as the smallest repeating unit of the crystal lattice which when
repeated regularly in all the three directions results in the entire crystal

α β

α,β,γ are known as axial angles

1. Primitive/Simple Unit Cell

2. Non primitive/Centered Unit Cell

Page 3 of 22
 Non primitive or Centered Unit Cell is again classified as follows:

Non primitive/Centered
Body Centered
(At its body centre
+ corners)

Unit Cell Face Centered

(At centre + Corners)
( Face
(((At corner+At
face)
End Centered
(Opp. faces +Corners)
ersCConers)

NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN UNITCELL

Lattice Number of particles ,z

Simple(Primitive) 1
BCC 2
FCC 4

CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
There are mainly 7 crystal systems:

System Axial length Axial angles Examples

1.Cubic a=b=c γ=β=α=90 Nacl,Cu,Kcl
2.Tetragonal a=b≠c γ=β=α=90 White tin,Sno2
3.Orthorhombic a≠b≠c γ=β=α=90 Rhombic
Sulphur,KNO3,BaSo4
4.Monoclinic a≠b≠c γ=90,β≠120,α=90 Monoclinic
Sulphur,Na2So4.10H20
5.Hexagonal a=b≠c Γ≠120,β=90,α=90 Ice,Mg,Zn,Graphite
6.Rhombohedral/trigonal a=b=c γ=β=α≠90 NaNO3,As
7.Triclinic a≠b≠c γ≠β≠α≠90 K2Cr204,K3B03

Page 4 of 22
DENSITY OF A CUBIC CRYSTAL

a=Edge length of the unit cell M=Mass

D=ZM/a3NA
Z=Number of atoms per unit cell NA=6.022*1023

PACKING EFFICIENCY

SYSTEM PE
1.FCC 74%
2.BCC 68%
3.SIMPLE CUBIC 52%

IMPERFECTIONS OR DEFECTS IN CRYSTAL

Defects in
Crystals

Point defects Line defects

Non
Stoichiometr Stoichiometric
ic defect defects

Metal deficiency
Interstitial Metal excess Impurity defects
Vacancy defects defects
defects defects Eg:AgCl,CdCl 2
Eg:Feo,Fes

By anion By the presence

Stoichiometric vacancies of extra cations
defects in Eg:NaCl,Li in LiCl Eg:Zn0
ionic solids

Schottky defect Frenkel defect

Eg:NaCl,AgBr,CsCl Eg:AgCl,AgBr,ZnS

Page 5 of 22
Magnetic properties of solids
Substances can be classified in to five different classes depending on their behavior
towards a magnetic field

1. Diamagnetic Substances : Substances which are weakly repelled by a magnetic

field are called diamagnetic substances . Eg: Nacl, Tio2, Benzene
2. Paramagnetic Subtances: Substances which are weakly attracted by a magnetic
field are called paramagnetic substances. Eg: O2,Cuo,Fe3+
3. Ferromagnetic Substances: Substances which are strongly attracted by a magnetic
field are called ferromagnetic substances .Eg: Fe, Co, Ni
4. Anti - Ferromagnetic Substances: Substances which are expected to possess para
magnetism or ferromagnetism on the basis of unpaired electrons but actually
possess zero net magnetic moment are called anti Ferromagnetic substance. Eg:MnO
5. Ferrimagnetic Substances: Substances which are expected to possess para
magnetism or ferromagnetism on the basis of unpaired electrons but actually have
small net magnetic moment are called ferri magnetic substances.
Eg: Fe3O4,MgFe2O4,ZnFe2O4

Page 6 of 22
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

SOLUTION TYPE SOLUTE SOLVENT EXAMPLES

Gaseous Solutions Gas Gas Air,

Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed
Solid Gas with N2 gas ,Camphor
in N2 gas
Liquid Solutions Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in
Liquid Liquid water,C02 in H20,
Solid Liquid Ethanol in water,
Sugar in water

Solid Solutions Gas Solid H2 in pd,

Liquid Solid Sodium amalgam,
Solid Solid Copper in gold

SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS

Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount which can be dissolved in a given amount of
solvent .It depends on the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and pressure.

When a solute is added to a solvent little by little at a given temperature

the solute dissolves and finally a stage will be reached in which no more solute can be
reached .Now the solution is said to be a saturated solution.

Application of Le Chateliers principle,

1. Solubility of such substances decrease with increase of temperature

2. Pressure does not have any significant effect on the solubility of solids in liquids

Page 7 of 22
SOLUBILITY OF GASES

The solubility of a gas in a liquid is governed by which states that the solubility
of a gas in a liquid at a particular temperature is directly proportional to the pressure of the
gas in equilibrium with the liquid at that temperature.

According to , solubility of a gas in a liquid is a function of the partial

pressure of the gas. That is, mole fraction of the gas in a solution is proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas over the solution.

So Henry’s law may also be stated as

‘Partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in
solution.’

i.e., p=KHX……………………… (1)

Where x is the mole fraction of gas and KH is Henry’s constant .

APPLICATIONS OF HENRY’S LAW

(i) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under
pressure.

(ii) Usually , air diluted with helium gas in used as breathing gas for deep-sea divers in order to
reduce the painful effects of bends .Helium is less soluble in blood than Nitrogen.

(iii) At high altitudes the partial pressure of 02 is less. This leads to low concentration of 02 in
the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude and climbers. This causes climbers to
become weak and unable to think clearly .This symptom is known as anoxia.

RAOULT’S LAW FOR A BINARY SOLUTION OF TWO VOLATILE LIQUIDS

P=PA+PB P0 A

P0 B

VAPOUR PRESSURE

PA PB

XA=1

Mole fraction XB=0

XA=0 XB=1

Page 8 of 22
It may be stated as follows:

For a solution of volatile liquids ,the partial vapour pressure of each component at a given
temperature is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution.

Let us consider a solution of two miscible volatile liquids A and B having mole fraction XA and XB
respectively .Let their partial vapour pressures be PA and PB at a certain temperature. Then
according to Raoult’s law,

PA α XA and PB α XB

: PA = P0A XA ………… (1) and

PB= P0B XB …………… (2)

Where P0A and POB are the vapour pressures of A and B in the pure state.

According to Dalton’s law of partial pressures , the total vapour pressure P exerted by the
solution will be the sum of the partial vapour pressures of the components A and B .Thus
P=PA+PB.

Substituting for PA and PB , We get

P=P0A XA +P0B XB…………. (3)

Solutions that obey Raoult’s law are called ideal solutions.

When the solute used is non –volatile , the total vapour pressure of the solution will be
equal to the vapour pressure of the solvent in the solution.

That is,

P=PA Where PA=P0A XA

Then,

P=PA =P0A XA

The plot of vapour pressure of any component against mole fraction gives a linear plot

as shown in the above graph.

Page 9 of 22
IDEAL SOLUTIONS NON IDEAL SOLUTIONS

1. It obeys Raoult’s law 1. Solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law

2. ΔHmixing =0 , ΔVmixing =0
2. ΔHmixing ≠0 , ΔVmixing ≠0

3. Attractive forces between A-A and B-B

3. PA≠POA XA
nearly equal to those between A-B
Classified as two types:

Eg :n-hexane and n-heptane 1. Non ideal solutions showing positive

deviations
2. .Non ideal solutions showing negative
deviations

Non ideal solutions showing positive deviations

Eg:(i)Ethanol and Acetone
(ii) Ethanol and Water
(iii) Acetone and Carbondisulphide

Non ideal
solutions

Non ideal solutions showing negative deviations

Eg:(i)Phenol and Aniline
(ii) Nitric acid and Water
(iii) Chloroform and ether

Page 10 of 22
 Azeotropic mixtures are constant boiling mixtures having same composition in liquid and
in vapour phase and boils at a constant temperature. These are two types:

(A) Minimum boiling azeotropes {95% Ethanol}

Eg: Positive deviation-Compounds

(B) Maximum boiling azeotropes {68% HNO3 }

Eg: Negative deviation Compounds

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Properties which depend only on the number of particles is known as colligative properties.

1.Elevation
in boiling
point

3.Relative
2. Depression
COLLIGATIVE lowering of
in freezing PROPERTIES vapour
point
pressure

4.Osmotic
pressure

Vapour pressure B D

1. ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT

Solvent

Tb >T0b and Δ Tb =Tb-T0b A Solution

C T0 b Tb

Temperature

Page 11 of 22
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure becomes
equal to the atmospheric pressure.

It is found that the boiling point of a solution is always higher than the boiling point
of the pure solvent . If Tb is the boiling point of the solution and T0b that of the pure
solvent, then

Tb >T0b and Δ Tb =Tb-T0b

Where ΔTb is called the elevation in boiling point.

2. DEPRESSION IN FREEZING POINT

Vapour Pressure Solvent

B Solution

Solid solvent

A D

TF TO F Temperature (T)

It is observed that when a non- volatile solute is added to a solvent , the freezing point of
the solvent is lowered. That is , the freezing point of solution is always lower than the
freezing point of the pure solvent. If T0f is the freezing point of the pure solvent and
Tf that of the solution , then

Tf < Tf

: T0f –Tf = ΔTf Where ΔTf is called the depression in freezing point.

3. RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE

(P0A – PA)/(P0A) IS CALLED RELATIVE LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE.

“The relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing a non-volatile

solute is equal to the mole fraction of the solute in the solution”.

Page 12 of 22
OSMOSIS

The passage of solvent from pure solvent or from dilute solution through a
semipermeable membrane to a high concentrated solution is known as osmosis.

Eg: a. The raw mangoes shrived when suspended in salt water

b. The wilted flower revive when placed in fresh water

c. The blood cells collapse when suspended in saline water

MEMBRANE

Artificial Natural
Membrane Membrane
Eg:(i)Cellophaine Eg:(i)Animal
(ii)Parchment membrane
Paper
(ii)Vegetable
membrane

EDEMA(A TYPE OF DISEASE)

It is a very good example for osmosis. Edema is a type of disease. This is due to the

retention of water in the tissue cells and inter cellular space on account of osmosis.

Page 13 of 22
REVERSE OSMOSIS

Reverse osmosis can be done by exerting high pressure over than osmotic pressure on the
solution side . This process is known as reverse osmosis.

4. OSMOTIC PRESSURE(Π)

Osmotic pressure is the excess pressure that must be applied to the solution side to prevent
osmosis.

That is., ΠαCT

Π=R C T

Π=R( n/v) T [C = n/v ]

ΠV = nRT

ΠV=R( W/M )T [n= W/M ]

ΠV= R( W/M )T Is known as Van’t Hoff ‘s solution equation.

ADVANTAGES OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE CALCULATIONS

(I) The measurement is carried out at room temperature

(II) Magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute solutions

Van’t Hoff’s Factor(i)

i= Normal mass of solute

Observed mass of solute /abnormal mass

i>1 ------------dissociation

i<1-------------association For non-electrolyte substances like urea, glucose i will be 1

Page 14 of 22
Isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solutions

Solutions having equal osmotic pressure are known as isotonic solutions. A solutions
having higher osmotic pressure than some other solution is said to be hypertonic with
respect to the other solution. Similarly a solution having lower osmotic pressure than some
other solutions is said to be hypotonic.

ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS

The relative molar mass of compounds can be found by calculating colligative properties.
This unexpected value is known as abnormal molar mass. On the other hand the molar mass
either higher or lower than the normal value is known as abnormal molar mass.

DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION (α)

α= i-1 Where n is the no of ions.

n-1 Eg: For AB2 n = 3

This equation can also be written as :

α= i-1 Where n is the no of molecules associated for the formation

(1/n)-1 of single species.

Page 15 of 22
The process in electrochemical cells may be summed up as:

LEFT RIGHT
Anode Cathode
Oxidation Reduction
Negative electrode Positive electrode

REPRESENTATION OF AN ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

Oxidation half cell- Anode

Reduction half cell- Cathode

The salt bridge is represented by two vertical lines

Thus Daniell cell is represented as

Zn / Zn2+ (c1) // Cu2+ (c2) / Cu

Where c1 and c2 are the concentration of Zn2+ and Cu2+ ions respectively.

CELL POTENTIAL ( EMF OF CELL )

The difference between the electrode potentials of the two half cells is known as the
cell potential (Ecell). It is called the electromotive force (EMF) of the cell when no
current is drawn through the cell.

i.e ., Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode

Ecell= ER - EL

Page 16 of 22
STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE (SHE)

The electrode potential of SHE is arbitrarily taken as zero. Pure hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure
is bubbled through the solution at 298K.

SHE is represented as

Pt / H2(gas) (1 bar) / H+ (1 M)

ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES

The arrangement of various elements in order of increasing or decreasing values of

standard reduction potentials is called electrochemical series or activity series.

Applications of electrochemical series:

1. To compare the relative reactivities of metals

2. To compare the relative oxidising and reducing abilities
3. To construct electrochemical cells and calculate their standard EMF

EQUATIONS FOR PROBLEM PRACTICE

EMn+ = E0 Mn+ /M – (0.059/n) log (1/[Mn+ ])

Ecell = E0cell – (0.059/2) log [Zn2+ ] /[Cu2+ ]

Ecell = E0cell – (0.059/n) log [C]c [D]d /[A]a [B]b

E0cell = (2.303 RT /n F) log Kc

Page 17 of 22
 ΔrG0 = -2.303 RT log Kc

FACTORS AFFECTING CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTION

(I) Nature of solvent and its viscosity

(II) Concentration of the electrolyte
(III) Temperature
(IV) The nature of the electrolyte
(V) Size of the ion produced and their solvation

Difference between metallic conductors and electrolytic conductors

Metallic Conductors Electrolytic Conductors

1. Conductions occurs through movement of Conductions is due to movement of ions

electrons

2. Flow of electricity takes place without any Flow of electricity is accompanied by chemical
chemical change decomposition

3. Electrical conduction decreases with Electrical conduction increases with increase of

increase of temperature temperature

4. Conductivity of metals is generally high Conductivity of electrolyte is generally low

5. No mass transfer occurs Mass transfer occurs

KOHLRAUSCH’S LAW OF INDEPENDENT MIGRATION OF IONS

The law states that the limiting molar conductivity an electrolyte is the sum of the limiting
molar ionic conductivities of the cations and anions of the electrolyte present in the
solutions.

Page 18 of 22
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

FIRST LAW:

Faraday’s first law states that the mass of a substance liberated (or deposited) at
the electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the
electrolyte solution.

i.e. , w α Q But Q=I t

:wαIt w= Z I t

SECOND LAW:

Faraday’s second law states that ‘when the same quantity of electricity is passed
through different electrolytes (joined in series), the mass of substances formed at the
electrodes are proportional to their respective chemical equivalent masses’.

a. Commercial production of chlorine , fluorine , etc..

b. Extraction of metals such as Mg, Ca , Sr ,Ba ,Al ,Na , K etc..
c. Manufacture of caustic soda (NaOH)
d. Electroplating

The term battery stands for the arrangement of two or more galvanic cells. There are mainly

two types of commercial batteries : PRIMARY BATTERIES and SECONDARY BATTERIES.

A.Primary cells-
They cannot be recharged

(i) Dry cell:

Page 19 of 22
Anode – Zinc

Cathode- Graphite rod

The reactions taking place in a dry cell are

Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e- {Anode}

MnO2(s) + NH4+ + e- MnO (OH) + NH3 {Cathode]

(ii) Mercury cell

Anode – Zinc mercury

Cathode – Paste 0f HgO and Carbon

The reactions taking place in a mercury cell are

Zn(Hg) + 2OH- ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- {Anode}

HgO(s) + H2O + 2e- Hg(l) +2OH- {Cathode}

B.Secondary Cells:
They can be recharged

(i) Lead Storage Battery

Anode- Lead

Cathode- Grid of lead packed with pbO2

The reactions taking place in a Lead Storage Cell are

Pb(s) + SO42- (aq) PbSO4 (s) +2e- {Anode}

pbO2 (s) + SO42- (aq)+ 4 H+(aq)+ 2e- PbSO4 (s)+2H2O (l) {Cathode}

Page 20 of
22
 (ii) Nickel-Cadmium cell

Anode – Cadmium Cathode- NiO2

The reactions taking place in a Nickel-Cadmium Cell are

Cd(s) + 2Ni(OH)3 (s) CdO (s) + 2Ni (OH)2 (s) + H2O (l)

The cell has longer life than lead storage cell but is more expensive . This type of cell is used
in rechargeable electric lamps.

They are devices which convert the energy produced by the combustion of fuel

directly into electrical energy . For example H2- O2 fuel cell consists or porous carbon

electrodes containing suitable catalysts (platinum or palladium ). H2 and O2 are bubbled

through the porous electrodes into aqueous NaOH (Or KOH ) solution . The following

reactions take place at the electrode:

The reactions taking place in a fuel Cell are

2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) 4H2O(l)+ 4e- {Anode}

O2(g) + 2H2O(l) +4e- 4OH(aq) {Cathode}

Other fuel cells in use are methane-oxygen fuel cell and methanol-oxygen fuel cell.

Advantages of the fuel cell

A. Fuel cells are pollution free

B. They are much more efficient
C. Fuel cells run continuously as long as the reactants are supplied

Page 21 of 22
 Sacrificial
Protection

Anti-rust PREVENTION Barrier

OF
solutions CORROSION Protection

Cathodic
Protection

( Prevention of Corrosion)

Page 22 of 22