Module-2 (Junction Diodes)

Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors – doping - PN Junctions,

Formation of Junction, Physical operation of diode, Barrier Potential, I -
V Characteristics, Rectifiers, Zener diode – I-V Characteristics, Zener
diode as Voltage regulator.
(5 hours)
Content
• Introduction.
• Intrinsic Semiconductors.
• Extrinsic semiconductors.
• Doping.
Introduction
• All matter is composed of atoms (smallest Particle); all atoms consist of electrons, protons, and
neutrons except normal hydrogen, which does not have a neutron.
• The atom is not a single particle but was made up of a small dense nucleus around which electrons
orbit at great distances from the nucleus, similar to the way planets orbit the sun.

The Bohr Model

Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons in an atom circle the
nucleus in different obits, similar to the way planets orbit
the sun in our solar system.

Each of the known elements has atoms that are different from
the atoms of all other elements. This gives each element a
unique atomic structure.

The nucleus consists of positively charged particles called

protons and uncharged particles called neutrons.

The basic particles of negative charge are called electrons.

Introduction-The Bohr Model
• The atomic number equals the number of protons
in the nucleus, which is the same as the number of
electrons in an electrically balanced (neutral) atom.

• For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1

and helium has an atomic number of 2.
Introduction-The Bohr Model
• Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distances from the nucleus.
• Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in more distant orbits.
• Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of electron energies exist within atomic
structures.
• Therefore, electrons must orbit only at discrete distances from the nucleus.
• Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a certain energy level.
• In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy levels known as shells.
• A given atom has a fixed number of shells.
• Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons.
• The shells (energy levels) are designated 1, 2, 3, and so on…
Introduction-The Bohr Model
••   The Bohr model of the silicon atom.
• There are 14 electrons.
• 14 protons and 14 neutrons in the nucleus.
• The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that can exist in each shell of
an atom is a fact of nature and can be calculated by the formula:
(1)
where n is the number of the shell.
 • The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the innermost shell (shell 1) is
(2)
• The maximum number of electrons that can exist in shell 2 is
(3)
• The maximum number of electrons that can exist in shell 3 is
(4)
• The maximum number of electrons that can exist in shell 4 is
(5)
Valence Electrons
• Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy and are less
tightly bound to the atom than those closer to the nucleus.
• This is because the force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and
the negatively charged electron decreases with increasing distance from the nucleus.
• Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outermost shell of an atom and are
relatively loosely bound to the atom.
• This outermost shell is known as the valence shell and electrons in this shell are
called valence electrons.
• These valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and bonding within the
structure of a material and determine its electrical properties.
• When a valence electron gains sufficient energy from an external source, it can
break free from its atom. This is the basis for conduction in materials.
Ionization
• When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, for example,
the energies of the electrons are raised.
• The valence electrons possess more energy and are more loosely bound to the
atom than inner electrons, so they can easily jump to higher energy shells when
external energy is absorbed by the atom.
• If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, called ionization
energy, it can actually escape from the outer shell and the atom’s influence.
• The departure of a valence electron leaves a previously neutral atom with an
excess of positive charge (more protons than electrons).
• The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization, and the
resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion.
• The escaped valence electron is called a free electron.
Ionization
•  For example, the chemical symbol for hydrogen is H.
•
• When a neutral hydrogen atom loses its valence electron and becomes a positive ion, it is designated H+.
• The reverse process can occur in certain atoms when a free electron collides with the atom and is captured, releasing energy.
• The atom that has acquired the extra electron is called a negative ion.

• The ionization process is not restricted to single atoms. In many chemical reactions, a group of atoms that are bonded together
can lose or acquire one or more electrons.
• For some nonmetallic materials such as chlorine, a free electron can be captured by the neutral atom, forming a negative ion.
• In the case of chlorine, the ion is more stable than the neutral atom because it has a filled outer shell. The chlorine ion is
designated as .
Structure of Atom and Band theory
Negative electrons are attracted towards the positive nucleus
Consequently, it takes energy to move an electron away from the nucleus to an
outer circle

Energy level closest to nucleus has a value of n=1

Energy levels are numbered 1,2,3…etc
Energy levels are called principal quantum
numbers. Principle Quantum Number (n)
The smaller the number the closer the energy
level is to the nucleus.

Electron Configuration:

 Shells (n=1, n=2…n=7)

 Subshells (s, p, d, f, g, h, etc.)
 Orbitals (volume of space within subshell)
 Valence shell: Outermost shell containing electrons
 Valence electrons: Electrons in the outermost shells
Structure of Atom.. Cntd...
(Band Theory)
 Each shell (n level) has only 1 s orbital (1s, 2s, 3s, etc.)
 There are 3 p orbitals in each shell #2 and higher
 There are 5 d orbitals in shell 3 and higher
 There are 7 f orbitals in shell 4 and higher

Pauli exclusion principle, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state
 Energy Bands description…
 Gaseous substances - molecules  are spread apart /not so close to each other.
 Liquids - the molecules are closer to each other.
 But, in solids, the molecules are closely arranged together, due to this the atoms of molecules tend to move into the
orbitals of neighboring atoms. Hence, the electron orbitals overlap when atoms come together.
 Intermixing of atoms in solids - several bands of energy levels are formed - energy bands.

Formation of Energy Bands

 In an isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit possess definite energy.
 Solids, the energy level of the outermost orbit electrons are affected by the neighbouring atoms.
 When two isolated charges are brought close to each other, the electrons in the outermost orbit
experiences an attractive force from the nearest or neighbouring atomic nucleus.
 Due to this reason, the energies of the electrons will not be at the same level, the energy levels of
electrons are changed to a value which is higher or lower than that of the original energy level of the
electron.
 The electrons in the same orbit exhibit different energy levels. The grouping of this different energy
levels is known as energy band.
 However, the energy of the inner orbit electrons are not much affected by the presence of neighbouring
atoms.
Materials…
Materials Classification Insulator< Semiconductor(Material-Conductivity)<Metal

 The flow of electrons inside the material is referred to as the electric current.
 Electrical conductivity is nothing but the measure of the capability of the material to pass the flow of
electric current.
• In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be
classified into three groups:
• Conductors.
• Semiconductors and
• Insulators.
• When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline
material, they arrange themselves in a symmetrical
pattern.
• The atoms within the crystal structure are held together
A semiconductor is a crystalline or amorphous solid
by covalent bonds, which are created by the interaction
whose electrical conductivity is typically intermediate of the valence electrons of the atoms.
between that of a metal and an insulator and can be
σ = 1/ρ
changed
Where, σ = electrical conductivity, ρ = resistivity
The unique energy-level structure of semiconductor The conductivity can be varied by
materials leads to special electrical and optical properties.  Doping , Temperature (applied Energy) and Illumination
Insulator
• An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal
conditions.
• Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element materials and
have very high resistivities.
• Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there are very few
free electrons in an insulator.
• Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.
Conductor
• A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.
• Most metals are good conductors.
• The best conductors are single-element materials, such as copper (Cu), silver
(Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which are characterized by atoms with
only one valence electron very loosely bound to the atom.
• These loosely bound valence electrons become free electrons.
• Therefore, in a conductive material the free electrons are valence electrons.
Semiconductor
• A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its
ability to conduct electrical current.
• A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a
good insulator.
• Single-element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), astatine (At),
boron (B), polonium (Po), tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge).
• Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium
nitride, silicon carbide, and silicon germanium are also commonly used.
• The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms with four
valence electrons.
• Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor.
Valance Band, Conduction Band and Band gap
• Valence shell of an atom represents a band of energy levels and that the valence
electrons are confined to that band.
• When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can leave the valence
shell, become a free electron, and exist in what is known as the conduction
band.
• The difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction band is
called an energy gap or band gap.
• This is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in order to jump
from the valence band to the conduction band.
• Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move throughout the
material.
Energy diagrams for the three types of materials
Energy diagrams for the three types of materials
• Energy gap is a region in insulators and semiconductors where no electron states
exist. Although an electron may not exist in this region, it can “jump” across it
under certain conditions.
• For insulators, the gap can be crossed only when breakdown conditions occur—
as when a very high voltage is applied across the material.
• In semiconductors the band gap is smaller, allowing an electron in the valence
band to jump into the conduction band if it absorbs a photon. The band gap
depends on the semiconductor material.
• In conductors, the conduction band and valence band overlap, so there is no gap.
This means that electrons in the valence band move freely into the conduction
band, so there are always electrons available as free electrons.
Silicon and Germanium
• The atomic structures of silicon and germanium.
• Silicon is used in diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and other
semiconductor devices.
• Notice that both silicon and germanium have the characteristic four valence
electrons.
Silicon and Germanium
• The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while those in silicon
are in the third shell, closer to the nucleus.
• This means that the germanium valence electrons are at higher energy levels
than those in silicon and, therefore, require a smaller amount of additional
energy to escape from the atom.
• This property makes germanium more unstable at high temperatures and results
in excessive reverse current.
• This is why silicon is a more widely used semiconductive material.
Covalent Bonds
• A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence electrons shares an electron with each
of its four neighbors.
• This effectively creates eight shared valence electrons for each atom and
produces a state of chemical stability.
• Also, this sharing of valence electrons produces the covalent bonds that hold the
atoms together; each valence electron is attracted equally by the two adjacent
atoms which share it.
• An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities.
• Covalent bonding for germanium is similar because it also has four valence
electrons.
 Covalent Bonds
• A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence electrons shares an electron with each
of its four neighbors.

The center silicon atom shares an electron

with each of the four surrounding silicon
atoms, creating a covalent bond with each. Bonding diagram.
Covalent Bonds of Silicon Crystal
 Silicon Covalent Bond Model
Covalent bond

Silicon atom
• Increasing temperature adds energy to the system and
breaks bonds in the lattice, generating electron-hole pairs.

• The pairs move within the matter forming semiconductor

• Some of the electrons can fall into the holes –
recombination.

What happens as the temperature increases?

• Near absolute zero, all bonds are complete
• Each Si atom contributes one electron to each of the four
bond pairs
• The outer shell is full, no free electrons, silicon crystal is an
insulator
Electricity in Semiconductors
• The energy band diagram for an
unexcited (no external energy such as
heat) atom in a pure silicon crystal.
• This condition occurs only at a
temperature of absolute zero (0) Kelvin.
 Energy diagram

Electricity in Semiconductors
• Conduction Electrons and Holes.
• An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room
temperature has sufficient heat (thermal)
energy for some valence electrons to jump the
gap from the valence band into the conduction
Bonding diagram
band, becoming free electrons.
• Free electrons are also called conduction
electrons.
• This is illustrated in the Energy diagram and
Bonding Diagram.
Electricity in Semiconductors
• When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence
band within the crystal.
• This vacancy is called a hole.
• For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy, there is one
hole left in the valence band, creating what is called an electron-hole pair.
• Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls
back into a hole in the valence band.
• A piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has, at any instant, a number of
conduction-band (free) electrons that are unattached to any atom and are
essentially drifting randomly throughout the material.
• There is also an equal number of holes in the valence band created when these
electrons jump into the conduction band.
Electron-Hole pair in Silicon
Electron current

• When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic silicon, as shown in Figure,

the thermally generated free electrons in the conduction band, which are free to
move randomly in the crystal structure, are now easily attracted toward the
positive end.
• This movement of free electrons is one type of current in a semiconductive
material and is called electron current.
Hole current
• Another type of current occurs in the valence band, where the holes created by
the free electrons exist.
• Electrons remaining in the valence band are still attached to their atoms and are
not free to move randomly in the crystal structure as are the free electrons.
• However, a valence electron can move into a nearby hole with little change in
its energy level, thus leaving another hole where it came from.
• Effectively the hole has moved from one place to another in the crystal
structure.
• Although current in the valence band is produced by valence electrons, it is
called hole current to distinguish it from electron current in the conduction
band.
Hole current
Electron-Hole current
• Conduction in semiconductors is considered to be either the movement of free
electrons in the conduction band or the movement of holes in the valence band,
which is actually the movement of valence electrons to nearby atoms, creating
hole current in the opposite direction.
• It is interesting to contrast the two types of charge movement in a
semiconductor with the charge movement in a metallic conductor, such as
copper.
Doping
• Since semiconductors are generally poor conductors, their conductivity can be
drastically increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the intrinsic
(pure) semiconductive material.
• This process, called doping, increases the number of current carriers (electrons
or holes).
• The two categories of impurities are n-type and p-type.
N-Type Semiconductor
• To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in intrinsic silicon,
pentavalent impurity atoms are added.
• These are atoms with five valence electrons such as Arsenic (As), Phosphorus
(P), Bismuth (Bi), and Antimony (Sb).
• Each pentavalent atom (Antimony, in this case) forms covalent bonds with four
adjacent silicon atoms.
• Four of the antimony atom’s valence electrons are used to form the covalent
bonds with silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron.
• This extra electron becomes a conduction electron because it is not involved in
bonding.
• Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a donor
atom.
N-Type Semiconductors
• The number of conduction
electrons can be carefully
controlled by the number of
impurity atoms added to the
silicon.
• A conduction electron created by
this doping process does not leave
a hole in the valence band because
it is in excess of the number
required to fill the valence band.
Majority and Minority Carriers in N-Type Semiconductors
• Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or germanium) doped
with pentavalent atoms is an n-type semiconductor (the n stands for the negative
charge on an electron).
• The electrons are called the majority carriers in n-type material.
• Although the majority of current carriers in n-type material are electrons, there
are also a few holes that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally
generated.
• These holes are not produced by the addition of the pentavalent impurity atoms.
• Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.
P-Type Semiconductors
• To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity atoms are
added.
• These are atoms with three valence electrons such as Boron (B), Indium (In),
and Gallium (Ga).
• Each trivalent atom (boron, in this case) forms covalent bonds with four
adjacent silicon atoms.
• All three of the boron atom’s valence electrons are used in the covalent bonds;
and, since four electrons are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is
added.
• Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to as an
acceptor atom.
P-Type Semiconductors
• The number of holes can be
carefully controlled by the number
of trivalent impurity atoms added
to the silicon.
• A hole created by this doping
process is not accompanied by a
conduction (free) electron.
Majority and Minority Carriers in P-Type Semiconductors
• Since most of the current carriers are holes, silicon (or germanium) doped with
trivalent atoms is called a p-type semiconductor.
• The holes are the majority carriers in p-type material.
• Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material are holes, there are
also a few conduction-band electrons that are created when electron-hole pairs
are thermally generated.
• These conduction-band electrons are not produced by the addition of the
trivalent impurity atoms.
• Conduction-band electrons in p-type material are the minority carriers.
Semiconductor Materials

Bandgap
Semiconductor Energy EG (eV)

Carbon (diamond) 5.47

Silicon 1.12

Germanium 0.66

Tin 0.082

Gallium arsenide 1.42

Gallium nitride 3.49

Indium phosphide 1.35

Boron nitride 7.50

Silicon carbide 3.26

Cadmium selenide 1.70

Semiconductor Materials
 Elemental semiconductors are formed from a single type of atom of column IV, typically Silicon.

 Compound semiconductors are formed from combinations of elements of column III and V,
column IV and IV, column IV and VI or columns II and VI.

 Germanium was used in many early devices.

 Silicon quickly replaced germanium due to its higher band gap energy, lower cost, and ability to
be easily oxidized to form silicon-dioxide insulating layers.

 The elemental is used for making transistors and diodes while compound are used in LEDs or
even adding flexibility in the materials

 Historically, III – V compounds are used for optoelectronic applications, especially GaAs & InP-
based
 GaP – visible part of the spectrum – LED , bandgap – 2.1 eV
 But GaP bandgap is indirect, but by doping techniques radiative efficiency can be
improved
 Compared to Si & Ge – GaAs & InP have high electron mobilities and velocities
 Their (GaAs & InP) direct bandgap – responsible for high radiative efficiency

 Doping is controlled addition of impurities in order to alter the conductivity and the charge
carrier properties
Energy Band Model for a Doped Semiconductor

Semiconductor with donor or n-type

dopants. The donor atoms have free
electrons with energy ED. Since ED
is close to EC, (about 0.045 eV for
phosphorous), it is easy for electrons
in an n-type material to move up into
the conduction band and create
negative charge carriers.
 Pentavalent

Semiconductor with acceptor or p-

type dopants. The acceptor atoms
have unfilled covalent bonds with
energy state EA. Since EA is close
to EV, (about 0.044 eV for boron), it
is easy for electrons in the valence
band to move up into the acceptor
sites and complete covalent bond
 Trivalent pairs, and create holes – positive
charge carriers.

 Phosphorous (or other column V element) atom replaces silicon atom in crystal lattice.
 Since phosphorous has five outer shell electrons, there is now an ‘extra’ electron in the structure.
 Material is still charge neutral, but very little energy is required to free the electron for conduction since it is not
participating in a bond.
Summary
• Introduction to Atoms
• Insulators
• Conductors
• Semiconductors
• Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Doping
• N-Type and
• P-Type Semiconductors