RT 1 - LESSON 8

BASIC RADIATION
CONCEPTS
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• Define matter and list its three forms.

• Name the fundamental particles of the atom and list characteristics of each.

• Draw or describe a conceptual model of atomic structure.

• List and describe five forms of energy.

• Draw a sine wave and measure its amplitude and its wavelength.

• Relate the wavelength of sine wave to its velocity and frequency.

• Compare and contrast the characteristics of x-rays with the characteristics of

visible light.
• Explain the relationship between potential difference, current and resistance
in an electric circuit and the units used to measure each.
• Describe the process of electromahgnetic induction.

• Draw simple diagrams of a step-up transformer anf step-down transformer

MATTER
• Defined as anything that occupies space and has shape or form
• Can be transformed from one size, shape & form to another
Mass
• The quantity of matter that makes up any physical object.
• The quantity of matter (constant)
Atoms
• Building blocks of matter
• Fundamental particles that compose atoms are: protons electrons and
neutrons.
• The neutrons and protons together form the nucleus of the atom.
• The electrons circle the nucleus in orbits shells.
• The useful model for visualizing atomic structure is that of the solar system,
with the nucleus as the sun and the electrons as planets orbit around the sun.
• Miniature solar was first described by Neils Bohr in 1913 known as Bohr’s
atom.
PROTON
• Carries all atoms’ positive electrical charge.
• Carries one unit of positive electric charge (1.602 x 10-19).
• The mass is equal to 1.673 x 10-27 kg.
• Atomic mass number is equal to 1.
• It spins

Eugen Goldstien discovered the proton

NEUTRON
• Elecrically neutral (NO CHARGE)
• Its mass is slightly heavier than the proton, that is, 1.675 x 10-27 kg.
• It spins

James Chadwick discoverd the neutron

ELECTRON
• Very small particle, carrying one unit of negative charge (-1.602 x 10-19)

• The mass is equal to 9.1 x 10-31 kg.

• Revolves around the nucleus at the speed of light in precisely fixed orbits

• Atomic mass number (A) is zero.

• It spins.

Joseph John Thomson discovered the electrons after investigating the

properties of the cathode ray tube.
Fundamental Atomic Particles

Particle Location Mass Number Charge

Proton Nucleus 1 +1
Neutron Nucleus 1 0
Electron Orbital Shells -1
Electron Shells

Shell Number Shell Symbol Maximum number of

Electrons
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
6 P 72
7 Q 98
 Electron Arrangement
2n2 - is the maximum number of electrons that can only
occupy a shell.
 Electron Binding Energy

• The strength of attachment of an electron to the

nucleus
• The closer an electron to the nucleus the more tightly
it is bound.
• ELEMENT
- A pure chemical substance

• MOLECULES
- Group of atoms bonded together
- Smallest particle of a compound
Compound
• Composed of two or more elements chemically linked

Ionization
• Ion is defined as charged particle.
• Process when a neutral atom gains or loses an electron, the electric charges of
its proton and electrons are no longer equal.
ENERGY
• Is defined as the ability to do work.
• It occurs in several forms and can be changed from one form to another.

Forms of Energy
1. Potential Energy
• The ability to do work by virtue of position

2. Kinetic Energy
• The energy of motion. It is possessed by all matters in motion.

3. Chemical Energy
• It is the energy released by way of chemical reaction
4. Electrical Energy
• Represents the work that can be done when an electron or an electronic charge moves through
an electronic potential

5. Thermal (heat) Energy

• Energy of motion at the atomic or molecular level and in this regard may be viewed as kinetic
energy of atoms.

6. Electromagnetic Energy
• Type of energy in an x-ray just as matter can be transformed from one size, shape and form to
another, so energy can be transformed from type to another.

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
• Occurs in the form of sine wave.
• Moves through space at the velocity (speed) of approximately 186,000 miles/sec.
Photon
• Smallest unit of electromagnetic energy.

Quanta (quantum, singular)

• Photons occur as discrete “bundles” of energy.

Amplitude
• Distance between the crest and the trough of wave (its height).

Wavelength
• Distance from one crest to the next.
Frequency
• It is the number of times per second that a cress passes a given point.

Sine Wave Velocity/Speed

• Wavelength x Frequency = Velocity

• The velocity of electromagnetic radiation is 186,000
miles/sec. Note that all electromagnetic radiation has
the same velocity.
Sine Wave Energy

• Sine waves with shorter wavelength (higher frequency) have

more energy.
• X-rays with shorter wavelength are more penetrating.

Ionizing radiation

• Sufficient energy to remove an electron from its orbit

• Wavelength of 1 mm or less
• X-rays are one form of ionizing radiation
LAWS OF CONSERVATION
• Matter can be neither created nor destroyed, but it can
change form.
• Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but it can
change form.
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS
• X-rays are invisible. In addition to being unable to see x-rays, one cannot feel, smell or hear
them.
• X-rays are electrically neutral. X-rays have neither a positive nor a negative charge; they cannot
be accelerated or made to change direction by a manager or electrical field.
• X-rays have no mass. X-rays create no resistance to being put into motion and cannot produce
force.
• X-rays travel at the speed of light in a vacuum. X-rays move at a constant velocity of 3 x 108 m/s
or 186,000 miles per second in a vacuum.
• X-rays cannot be optically focused. Optical lenses have no ability to focus or refract x-ray
photons.
• X-rays form a polygenergetic or heterogenous beam. The x-ray beam that is used in diagnostic
radiography is composed of photons that have many different energy. The maximum energy that
is set on the control panel of the radiographic unit by the radiographer.
• X-rays can be produced in a range of energies. These are useful fpr different purposes in
diagnostic radiography. The medically useful diagnostic range of x-ray energies is 30 to 150 kVp.
• X-rays travel in straigt lines. X-rays used in diagnostic radiography form a divergent beam in
which each individual photons travel in a straight line.
• X-rays travel in straigt lines. X-rays used in diagnostic radiography form a divergent beam in
which each individual photons travel in a straight line.
• X-rays can cause some substances to flouresce. When an x-rays strike some substances,
those substances produce light. These substances are used in diagnostic radiography, such as
image receptors.
• X-rays cause chemical changes to occur in radiographic and photographic film. X-rays are
capable of causing images to appear on radiographic film and are capable of fogging
photographic film.
• X-rays can penetrate the human body. X-rays have the ability to pass through the body,
based on the energy of the x-rays and on the composition and thickness of the tissues being
exposed.
• X-rays can be absorbed or scattered by tissues in the human body. Depending on the
energy of an individual x-ray photon, that photon may be absorbed in the body or be made
to scatter, moving in another direction.
• X-rays can produce secondary radiation. When x-rays absorbed as a result of a specific type
of interaction with matter (photoelectric effect), a secondary or characterisctic of photon is
produced.
• X-rays can cause chemical and biological damage to living tissues. Through excitation and
ionization (removal of electrons) of atoms comprising cells, damage to the cells can occur.
ELECTRICITY
• X-ray energy is human made and is produced electrically.

Conductors
• Electric charges will drift or flow in a vacuum, in certain gases (as in neon
light), in certain liquids (saltwater, for example), and through certain metals.
• Copper wire is an excellent conductor and is commonly used for electric
wiring. It is connected to form a circuit, a continuous path.
• Current will flow in the circuit when there is a difference in electric charge, a
potential difference, between two points in the circuit.
• Current is produced when negatively charged electrons flow toward a positive
charge.
• A positive potential can be maintained at one point un the circuit by means of
electric energy from a battery or a public utility.
ELECTRICAL UNITS

Resistance
• Any property of the circuit that opposes or hinders the flow of current.
• Ohm is the unit of resistance.
• Represented by the Greek letter Omega (Ω).

Current
• It is the quantity of electrons flowing in a circuit.
• The ampere, abbreviated A, is used to measure the rate of current flow in the circuit.
Potential difference
• It is the force or strength of the electron flow in the current.
• The Volt, abbreviated V, is the unit used to measure potential difference.
• One Volt is the quantity of potential difference needed to cause a current of 1 A to flow in
a circuit with resistance of 1 Ω.

Electric circuits
• It is a continuous path for the flow of electric charges from the power source through one
or more electric devices and back to the source.
• Series circuit
• The wiring runs continuously from the source, through the device and back to the source.
• An ammeter, for example, is a device for the measurement of current and is always connected in
series.

1. The current in all parts of a series circuit has the same magnitude.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = etc.
(I=V/R)
2. Voltage drop across each resistor equals current times the value of that resistor. Total
voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops
E = V1 + V2 + V3 + etc.
(V=IR)
3. The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of all the separate
resistances.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + etc.
FIND THE CURRENT/TOTAL
RESISTANCE & VOLTAGE DROP
• Parallel circuit
• Are wired across the circuit, creating a more complex circuit.
• A voltmeter measures the difference in electric potential between two points in the circuit, so it must
be connected in parallel, across the circuit between these two points.

1. The total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents in the separate
branches.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + etc.

2. The potential difference across all branches of a parallel circuit must have the same
magnitude.
V = V1 = V2 = V3 = etc.

3. The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the
separate resistances in parallel.
= + + + etc or Rt=V/It
What the total resistance in parallel operation for 15Ω, 20 Ω, and 5 Ω?
TYPES OF ELECTRICITY CURRENT
• Direct current
• Current flows in One Direction from cathode to anode.
• Alternating current
• Oscillation of electricity in both directions within a conductor.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND TRANSFORMER

• Magnetic fields and electric energy are interrelated

• Magnetic fields can be used to produce electricity, and conversely, electric current create
magnetic fields
• When a conductor is placed in a magnetic field and there is movement between the lines
of magnetic force and the conductor, current will flow in the conductor.
TRANSFORMER
• Device used to produce the high voltage needed for X-ray production
consists of primary and secondary coils, usually surrounding an iron core
• The iron core further enhances the magnetic fields of the coils
electric current always flows from the primary to the secondary coils
• When different numbers of turns or “windings”, are used in the coils of the primary coils
of the primary and secondary circuits , the kVp across the two coils will also be different
• This makes it possible to change voltage by means of electromagnetic induction, which is
the primary purpose of a transformer
• The voltage increase or decrease produced by a transformer is directly proportional to the
number of turns in each coil.
Step-up transformer
• When there are more windings in the secondary coil than in the primary coil, the voltage
of the secondary side is greater.
• A transformer with a turn ratio greater than 1.
• In a step up transformer, the current on the secondary side (I s) Is smaller than the current
on the primary side (Ip).

Step-down transformer
• If the secondary side has fewer turns, the secondary voltage will be less than the primary
voltage.
• A transformer with a turns ratio lesser than 1.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
Closed-core transformer
• Far, built about a square donut of ferromagnetic material.
• The ferromagnetic core is not a single piece but rather is built up of laminated
layers of iron.
• These layering helps reduce energy losses resulting in greater efficiency
Autotransformer
• It consists of an iron core with only one winding of wire about it.
• This single winding acts as both the primary and the secondary winding.
• Generally smaller, and because the primary and the secondary side are connected to those
same wire, its use is generally restricted to cases in which only a small step up or step
down in voltage is required.
• Not suitable for use as the high-voltage transformer is an X-ray imaging system.
Shell-type transformer
• Confines even more of the magnet field lines of the primary winding because the
secondary is wrapped around it and there are essentially two closed cores.
• This type is more efficient than the closed-core transformer.
• Most current used transformer.