kinds of intermolecular forces, but all
substances at least have LDF.
Introduction to Intermolecular Forces
The term “INTERmolecular forces” is used to
describe the forces of attraction BETWEEN
atoms, molecules, and ions when they are
placed close to each other
• This is different from INTRAmolecular
forces which is another word for the covalent
bonds inside molecules.
• When two particles experience an
intermolecular force, a positive (+) charge on
one particle is attracted to the negative (-) on
the other particles.
• When intermolecular forces are strong the
atoms, molecules or ions are strongly
attracted to each other, and draw closer
together. These are more likely to be found in
condensed states such as liquid or solid.
• When intermolecular forces are weak, the
atoms, molecules or ions do not have a strong
attraction for each other and move far apart.
https://byjus.com/chemistry/london-
dispersion-forces/
Types of Intermolecular Forces
There are three types of intermolecular forces:
London dispersion forces (LDF), dipoledipole
interactions, and hydrogen bonding.
Molecules can have any mix of these three
London Dispersion Forces (LDFs):
LDFs exist for all substances, whether
composed of polar or nonpolar molecules
• LDF arise from the formation of temporary
instantaneous polarities across a molecule
from the circulations of electrons.
• An instantaneous polarity in one molecule
may induce an opposing polarity in an
adjacent molecule, resulting in a series of
attractive forces among neighboring
molecules.
• Molecules with higher molecular weights
have more electrons. This makes their
electron clouds more deformable from nearby
charges, a characteristic called polarizability.
• As a result, molecules with higher molecular
weights have higher LDF and consequently
have higher melting points, boiling points and
enthalpies of vaporization.
Dipole-Dipole Interactions:
Dipole-dipole forces exist between molecules
that are polar-those that have apermanent
dipole moment due to uneven sharing of
electrons
• This uneven sharing gives one side of the
molecule a partial positive charge (δ+) and
the other side a partially negative charge (δ-)
• The polarities of individual molecules ten to
align by opposites, drawing molecules
together and thereby favoring a condensed
phase.
• Substances with dipole-dipole attractions
tend to have higher melting and boiling points
compared to nonpolar molecules, which only
have LDF.

Hydrogen Bonds:
When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded
to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine a very strong
dipole is formed.
• The dipole-dipole interactions that result
from these dipoles is known as hydrogen
bonding.
• Hydrogen bonding is an especially strong
form of dipole-dipole interaction.
LEWIS STRUCTURES: Very important to know the number of bonds
certain elements like to form
Basic knowledge in drawing lewis structures
The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms
o Determine the no. of valence
to prefer to have eight electrons in the valence
electrons in an atom
shell. When atoms have fewer than eight
o When you draw a lewis structure, you
electrons, they tend to react and form more
only show the valence electrons
stable compounds. When discussing the octet
o Space the electrons out evenly before
rule, we do not consider d or f electrons. Only
you pair them up
the s and p electrons are involved in the octet
rule, making it useful for the main group
elements (elements not in the transition metal
or inner-transition metal blocks); an octet in
these atoms corresponds to an electron
Valence electrons (refer to your configurations ending with s2p6s2p6.
periodic table)
Drawing atoms as they form into a molecule:
EX: H2 – Hydrogen Gas
o Each hydrogen atom contains a single
valence electron
o These two electrons form together
and will form a single bond
A SINGLE BOND
REPRESENTED THE
TWO VALENCE
ELECTRONS OF
HYDROGEN

EX: CL2 – Chlorine Gas

o 7 ve
o The halogens like to form only one
bond
2 ve into a bond
LIQUIDS AND INTERMOLECULAR melting points, viscosity, surface tension, and
FORCES: capillary action.
Dispersion Forces
What is Kinetic Molecular Theory?
- The figure below shows how a nonpolar
- Kinetic Theory states that the tiny particles
particle (in this case a helium atom) can be
in all forms of matter are in constant motion.
temporarily polarized to allow dispersion
force to form.
What are the 3 principles of KMT?
- All matter is made of tiny particles (atoms) - The tendency of an electron cloud to distort
- These particles are in constant motion is called its polarizability.
- When particles collide with each other or
the container, the collisions are perfectly
elastic (no energy is lost)

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Solid

are more closely packed than in liquids
- are arranged in highly organized order
- Are always in constant motion vibrate
around fixed locations Bond Types:
- Held together by strong intermolecular Ionic
forces. Polar covalent
Non-polar covalent
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquid
are close together Use Electronegativity Values to Determine
- little of empty space between molecules Bond Types
- are held together by attractive
intermolecular forces o Ionic bonds
- are in constant motion Electronegativity (EN) difference >
- Move/slide one past another freely so liquid 2.0
can flow collision rate is higher than in gases Polar Covalent bonds
States of Matter o EN difference is between .21 and
- The fundamental difference between states 1.99
of matter is the strength of the intermolecular
forces of attraction. Non-Polar Covalent bonds
- Stronger forces bring molecules closer
o EN difference is < .20
together.
- Solids and liquids are referred to as the Electrons shared evenly in the bond
condensed phases.
Ionic Character
Intermolecular Forces “Ionic Character” refers to a bond’s polarity
The attractions between molecules are not In a polar covalent bond,
nearly as strong as the intramolecular The closer the EN difference is to 2.0, the
attractions (bonds) that hold compounds more POLAR its character
together. The closer the EN difference is to .20, the
more NON-POLAR its character
Many physical properties reflect
intermolecular forces, like boiling points,
Polar vs. Nonpolar MOLECULES
Sometimes the bonds within a molecule are
polar and yet the molecule itself is non-polar.
- This results in a tetrahedral configuration.
Therefore, the molecule has no net dipole
moment. They all sort of cancel each other
out. So, a nonpolar molecule can have polar
bonds, but due to symmetry in the molecule,
there are no net poles.
H C H
Nonpolar Molecules
- Molecule is Equal on all sides
- Symmetrical shape of molecule (atoms
surrounding central atom are the same on all
sides)
Polar Molecules
- Molecule is Not Equal on all sides
- Not a symmetrical shape of molecule
(atoms surrounding central atom are not the
same on all sides)
POLAR MOLECULE
Unequal sharing of
electrons
Partial denoted by
delta sign
Not Symmetrical
Equal sharing of electrons
NON POLAR MOLECULE
Equal sharing of
electrons
Symmetrical
H
Water is a POLAR molecule
H ANY time there are unshared
pairs of electrons on the
central atom, the molecule is POLAR
Polar Covalent vs. Pure Covalent Bonds
The O-H bond (ΔEN = 1.4) in water is a polar
covalent bond. The shared electrons spend
more time with oxygen than
with hydrogen, thus the electron
sharing is uneven.
The Br-I bond (ΔEN = 0.3) in
bromine iodide is a pure covalent (nonpolar)
bond. The shared electrons essentially spend
equal time with bromine and iodine.
Factors Which Affect Amount of Dispersion
Force in a Molecule
- number of electrons in an atom (more
electrons, more dispersion force)
- size of atom or molecule/molecular weight
shape of molecules with similar masses (more
compact, less dispersion force)
Dipole–Dipole Interactions
- Polar molecules have a more positive and a
more negative end–a dipole (two poles, δ+
and δ−).
- The oppositely charged ends attract each
other.
What Forms Hydrogen Bonds?
- Hydrogen bonding arises in part from the
high electronegativity of nitrogen, oxygen,
and fluorine.
- These atoms interact with a nearly bare
nucleus (which contains one proton).
Ion–Dipole Interactions
- Ion–dipole interactions are found in
solutions of ions.
- The strength of these forces is what makes
it possible for ionic substances to dissolve in
polar solvents.

For molecules of approximately equal

mass and size, the more polar the molecule, Summarizing Intermolecular Forces
the higher its boiling point.

Which Have a Greater Effect: Dipole–Dipole

Interactions or Dispersion Forces?
- If two molecules are of comparable size and
shape, dipole–dipole interactions will likely
be the dominating force.
- If one molecule is much larger than another,
dispersion forces will likely determine its
physical properties.
Hydrogen Bonding
- The dipole–dipole interactions experienced
when H is bonded to N,
O, or F are unusually
strong.
- We call these
interactions hydrogen
bonds.
- A hydrogen bond is
an attraction between a
hydrogen atom
attached to a highly
electronegative atom
and a nearby small electronegative atom in
another molecule or chemical group.
Liquid Properties Affected by PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
Intermolecular Forces
o boiling point (previously discussed)
and melting point
o viscosity
o surface tension
o capillary action

Water acts as if it has a “skin” on it due to

extra inward forces
on its surface. Those
forces are called the
surface tension.

Cohesion and Adhesion

- Intermolecular forces that bind similar
molecules to one another are called
cohesive forces.
- Intermolecular forces that bind a
substance to a surface are called adhesive
forces.
- These forces are important in capillary
action.
Capillary Action
The rise of liquids up narrow tubes is called
capillary action.
Adhesive forces attract
the liquid to the wall of
Resistance of a liquid to flow is called the tube.
viscosity. Cohesive forces attract
It is related to the ease with which molecules the liquid to itself.
can move past each other. Water has stronger adhesive forces with
Viscosity increases with stronger glass; mercury has stronger cohesive forces
intermolecular forces and decreases with with itself.
higher temperature.
Phase Changes
Conversion from one state of matter to
another is called a phase change.
Energy is either added or released in a phase
change.
Phase changes: melting/freezing,
vaporizing/condensing,
subliming/depositing.
Energy Change & Change of State
• The heat of fusion is the energy
required to change a solid at its
melting point to a liquid.
• The heat of vaporization is the
energy required to change a liquid at
its boiling point to a gas.
• The heat of sublimation is the
energy required to change a solid
directly to a gas.
• A plot of temperature vs. heat added
is called a heating curve.
• Within a phase, heat is the product of
specific heat, sample mass, and
temperature change.
• The temperature of the substance
does not rise during a phase change.
• For the phase changes, the product of
mass and the heat of fusion of
vaporization is heat.
Supercritical Fluids
• Gases liquefies when pressure is
applied.
• The temperature beyond which a gas
cannot be compressed is called its
critical temperature.
The pressure needed to compress the
liquid at critical temperature is
called critical pressure.
• The state beyond this temperature is
called a supercritical fluid.
Vapor Pressure
• At any temperature, some liquid
molecules have enough energy to
escape the surface and become a gas.
• As the temperature rises, the fraction
of molecules that have enough energy
to break free increases.
• As more molecules escape the liquid,
the pressure they exert increases.
• The liquid and vapor reach a state of
dynamic equilibrium: liquid
molecules evaporate and vapor
molecules condense at the same rate.

• The boiling point of a liquid is the Phase Diagram

temperature at which its vapor
pressure equals atmospheric pressure. • A phase diagram is a graph of
pressure vs. temperature for a
• The normal boiling point is the substance. It shows
temperature at which its vapor
pressure is 760 torr. – melting, boiling, and
sublimation points at
• 1
The natural log of the vapor pressure different pressures.
of a liquid is inversely proportional to
its temperature. – the triple point and critical
point.
• This relationship is quantified in the
Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
 Liquid Crystals
• Some substances do not go directly
from the solid state to the liquid state.
• In this intermediate state, liquid
crystals have some traits of solids and
some of liquids.
Phase Diagram of Water • Molecules in liquid crystals have
• Note the high critical temperature and some degree
critical pressure. of order.

– These are due to the strong

van der Waals forces between
water molecules.

– Unusual feature for water:
– The slope of the solid–
liquid line is negative.
– This means that as the
pressure is increased, the
melting point decreases.
Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide
• In nematic liquid
crystals, molecules
are only ordered in
one dimension, along the long axis.
• In smectic liquid crystals, molecules
are
ordered in two dimensions, along the
long axis and in layers.
• In cholesteryic liquid crystals,
nematic-like crystals are layered at
angles to each other.

• Unusual features for carbon dioxide:

⮚ cannot exist
in the liquid
state at
pressures
below
5.11 atm
(triple
point)

✔ CO2 sublimes at normal pressures.

2nd QUARTER:

THERMODYNAMICS
Hello Chong!
07.13.23
Congratulations, Chong! Just an early disclaimer na this letter
might get a little senti hahahaha might as well have yourself some
tissues.
I’m so proud in every little step you took Shiya. In every lose,
and every win you had, even if it’s in its least form, you
deserved a cheer and acknowledgment.
This gratefulness naas ako run no, it’s not enough to show you how
lucky I am to have a Shiya in my life. Someone who’s not just a
friend and once a classmate, but also became a sister and family
to me. Grabe nako ka comfortable nimo hahahah naa juy era nga
halos na balay na nako inyong balay hahahahha.
You are creative and passionate in things you love so much chong.
You have a burning potential na I hope you wouldn’t let burn out.
Keep on striving chinggu kay there’s always something for you
prepared by the heavens, could be the bigger ones.
Before our high school year ends chong, mangayo kog pasalo sakong
shortcomings sa imuha and those times na I wasn’t emotionally
available to lend you a shoulder.
We were once 15, careless and reckless, now running adulthood,
trying to stand tall and be fearless against this unknown world.
Gentle reminder lang ha, always be kind to you. Give yourself some
chances and patience just like the ones you gave to me. And tatak
jud sa imong ulo nga you are legitimately beautiful chong. Girly
crush jud nako imong beauty since 9th grade hahaha
I love you so much Chong. I’ll always be around for you to
comeback.

Xoxo,
Gossip Girl
Hello Bry!
07.13.23
Congratulations, Brybry! Time flew unnoticeable jud diay. You made
it here. We made it here.
These recent days, I know we’re not only striving satung grades
and schooling to finish it pero simultaneously, we’re also working
out our friendship and other life aspects. It was a rocky bottom
and unexpected thing kay never have i ever thought malayo sa isaka
Breanna. You were the least one having the percentage nga malayo
ug loob sakoa.
Diri bry, mangayo kog pasaylo nmo. I made you feel baffled and sad
in a way. I’m sorry na I wasn’t able to be the friend you deserve.
I’m sorry sa akoang mga shortcomings sa imo lab, I genuinely feel
na all you ever wanted was to give us your love. It was never my
intent to hurt you and let you down bry. Not even once.
During satung bad days no, I’d always remember the good ones. I’d
remember how we spilled horrifying secrets while sharing the same
dipper and passing on shampoos. I’d remember how you let me cry
all my heart out sa chowking and ordered me something to eat. I’d
remember how often you’d save my ass because i was drunk. Pati sab
imong mga waley jokes, kataw’an nalang namo para ma havey gamay.
Labi nana atung dirty jokes nga di na kaya ma antos ni noella
hahaha. And I’d remember your kind words to me whenever i think im
not enough.
You saved me many times. I know you always had my back even in our
bad days, you’re always the witty, chaotic, naturally comedic girl
i met since day 1. There were no dull moments with you kay you’d
always bring out the craziness in me. Maong puhon puhon bry,
pabawia ko nimo. Let me fully in to your life and share your
sorrows with me with no shame.
This part shows my gratefulness sa imo. In case you didn’t know
bry, you are one of the people nga grabe kataas ug pasensya and
also who has a really big heart to fit everyone. Thankful kaayo ko
nga you were there during my lowest. Thank you for trying to
decipher my world bry. I consider you as one of my gifts from
heavens.
Karon nga you’re taking another step away bry, I wish you
prosperity and longevity. I pray one day, you’d become the
lifesaver you’ve ever wanted just like how you save mine and have
the life you deserve this entire time. Di mabalaka kay I think
mapasaylo rakas pasyente if mammalian nmo silag turok hahaha
And as you step towards our unknown world bry, always remember na
I’d be waiting for you to come back. I’d always be standing in the
same corner where we met and I’d always be the same person you
cried with in that shitty bathroom when we were in 8th grade.
I love you always and forever my pretty Brybry, amping ka always.
I miss you.

Xoxo,
Gossip Girl
Hello Byang!
07.13.23
Oh byang, congratulations satua! Huy finally naa najud ta diria
HAHAHAH wanay mag hilakay kang kuan HAHAHA, sa mga undying
schoolworks. Char mas lala pa diay sa college imi.
You know what, never have i ever expected nga magka close ta real
sht. I mean we know one another since 9th grade pero we weren’t
intimate until 11th grade nya mas nagka suod jud in this year. The
unexpected always happen the best and i could not ask for more
about it.
I’m thankful I met you dear. I know our friendship might has the
rockiest pavement, I’m just grateful how we managed to get away
with those bad days. And always remember byang na just because we
experience these phenomena, doesn’t mean it’s the end of
everything. Maong I’m thankful to have someone like you who look
through every lens.
I know you’re not selfish byang, i know you’re kind and have a big
heart. Kaya sometimes, i know ginatago na nimo from everyone just
to keep yourself protected. That’s okay, you know? Pero don’t
close your door too tight byang kay someone out there is waiting
for you.
Do you know you had the sweetest smile? I know i already told yous
akong birthday letter hahaha pero i’d always remind you again and
again para confident ka mu smile always. Show em your perfect
teeth mim, panootbrush lang jud para kissable na, huuuy
Pero kidding aside byang, I’m always thankful sa imo. You made me
love myself and more than that, you added faith in me. Even the
most in pain person in this world can call God and come to Him and
i believed that because of you.
You’re always good im things byang. Ikaw ra nag duha-duha sa imong
kaugalingon. Maong karon nga year, give yoursef some chance to
prove you, you can do it. Be kind to yourself byang just like how
you treat me. I love you so much byang. Lami jud ka panggaon.
Kapit ka lang jid byang and work hard. Be ambitious but don’t
divert your pathway. Be grateful with what you have today, and
reach ehat you want to have tomorrow. I know all of our tears and
screams will be paid soon.
Deserving kas imong hard works byang okay? Di na mang gaslight sa
kaugalingon ha? Naa rako mag pa remind nimo sa tanan para
mahuwasan ka.
As we grow older, we might as well outgrow ourselves apart pero
remember lang byang, I’d stay the same they way I am today. Ayaw
kabalaka anang “maulaw naman ko nmo oy” “dugay nata wa sturyahay
maikog nako”, sagpaon ko jud lage ka.
I pray for your success in life my beyalen, kabalo ko a lot awaits
for you. Keep striving and reaching lab.
Thank you for this year and i love you always.

Xoxo,
Gossip Girl
Hello Noeng!
07.13.23
Congratulations my love! I’m so happy seeing you up there with
your parents claiming your hard works. Nothing would make me
softer than seeing my girlies’ senti moments.
I know we haven’t talked for a while now. And our night messages
didn’t resolve everything. Pero kabalo ka unsay na realize nako
noeng? I’m just a friend longing for a friend. I shouldn’t make it
so dramatic imi. But I’m happy na i get to say what i want and
figure out what’s blocking between the wheel of our friendship.
I’m willing to set aside my own good for you noe.
I still think about you every now and then. I have many what ifs
about us pero nag overthink rako hahahah. Even my dirtiest secret
noeng, if i feel like i want you to know, i would always let you
know no matter how long it takes. And that’s what i ask lang no,
include me in your life. Let me fully in.
You’re under this category of a really special friend. Kay besides
of our friendship, your family is internally connected samoa.
That’s why you always feel home. Everything about you. Maong sahay
maka ask ko nganong single paka when you’re this comfortable and
warm. Pero sagdie kay boys can’t handle women like you. Let’s wait
for real men eme hahaha
Pasayloa kos akong pagkukulang sa imo noe. I’m sorry I wasn’t
emotionally available sa imuha. I didn’t mean paabuton ko jig
graduation pero kabalo ko both of us are hurt. I don’t want to
push and fake feelings para lang mag kaayo ta. On top of that, I
dont want to lose you. You’re very special and dear to me.
Pasayloa ko sakong mga masasamang words. I didn’t mean to.
You grew with me noeng. You cried with me and solved things
together. We had a special bond no one can top.
You are always this kind of friend who I never had doubts to open
to. I feel light and safe when you guys come over or whenever we
hang out and i know it’ll take me longer moments to have this same
friendship in college. I know we might outgrow ourselves apart,
pero I oath to stay here with you no. No matter what the
circumstances are. I’ll always be the Hanna nga hapit makawalas
imong payong.
Thank you kaayo sa tanan-tanan no. Thank you whenever you take
over things I can’t do. Tung ikaw nag answer sakong papel imo jud
gikuha sako miskan naas atubangan si sir lambo hahahaha. Ikaw sab
ga push sakoa nga ipakita akong potentials in front of everybody
like when you pushed me to act in front sa class during MIL or
answer my thoughts sa oral recitations. You are a spirit animal.
Reminiscing these moments makes me want to go back there noeng
miskan pait kaayong life hahaha. You were that one friend nga
makapa light sa tanan miskan sabaan kaayo hahaha. Karemember ko
before na alingogngogan ko nmo kay sige kag shagit while ga design
sa Mabini pinboard haahha. Never have i ever thought we’d become
besties today. And that’s a chance I’d never spill to waste.
As you go further now noeng after this big day, i pray for your
success and prosperity. I hope makuha nmo tanan imong kinahanglan
in the end of the day. Kay if dili, ako nalang kwaa hahaha.
I’m very grateful jud to meet someone as bold, a meant-to-be-
woman, and fearless (taylor’s version) as you. You are truly an
inspiration to me no, real shit. Everybody likes you (at least I
do).
I promise to forever love you and be a friend to you. I’m okay now
noeng, and i hope we can talk soon kay gimingaaaaw nako nmo real.
Eme senti kaayo ahhaha pero tinuod btaw.
Salamat sa inyong balay nga gipapuyo ming breanna rent free
hahaha. Ug sa kuryente ug tubig nga sala jud namo if napamahal ang
bill, salamat pud hahahah. I’ll forever cherish those moments we
made this year and way before.
Thank you sa tanan noeng and i love you very much. This doesn’t
end here dear, daghan pay naghuwat satua. Sa karon, amping kanunay
langga.

Xoxo,
Gossip Girl