SOUTHERNSIDE MONTESSORI SCHOOL

Camella Homes IV, Poblacion, Muntinlupa City

Third Quarter
Grade 12 – Physical Science
Notes 3: Chemical Structures

Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bond
When a metal ion and a nonmetal atom combine, the metal atom loses one or more electrons, which
is/are gained by the nonmetal atom. Compounds formed by ionic bond are called ionic compounds.
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS:
➢ Ionic Compounds are arranged in crystal lattice.
➢ They have high melting and boiling points
➢ As solids, they are nonconductors of electricity because ions are tightly packed in the crystal
lattice.

Covalent Bond
It exists between two nonmetal atoms that share electrons to assume a stable configuration of noble
gas. A covalent bond can be depicted as adjacent dots or lines. A covalent bond can be a single,
double, or triple bond. The resulting compounds of covalent bonding are called covalent compounds.
PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS:
➢ They have low melting and boiling points
➢ They generally do not conduct electricity in solution or aqueous form.

Bond Polarity
The degree of covalent or ionic character of a chemical bond between two atoms may be predicted
using the concept of electronegativity. Electronegativity (EN) is the ability of an atom in a compound
to attract electrons toward itself. The higher the EN value, the greater is the attraction for the
electrons.
Between two atoms with different electronegativities, the chemical bond at the more electronegative
atom becomes partially negative (-), and the other side becomes partially positive (+). This condition
results in a dipole. In such case, the chemical bond is described as polar.
Two atoms with similar electronegativities create an even distribution of electrons in a chemical bond
and thus make the bond nonpolar.

Electronegativity Difference can help determine if the bond is ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar
covalent.
1. C and Cl
∆ EN = 3. 0 -2.5 = 0.5 POLAR COVALENT

2. Mg and O
∆ EN = 3.5 -1.2 = 2.3 IONIC

3. H and Cl
∆ EN = 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9 POLAR COVALENT

4. N and N
∆ EN = 3.0 -3.0 = 0 PURE COVALENT
Metallic Bond
The bonding of metal atoms is depicted in the electron sea model, which accounts for some of the
properties exhibited by metals. The metallic bond is the electrical attraction between the outer
electron and the positive metal ion core. The electrons in the bond are “delocalized”; meaning they
move freely throughout the piece of metal.

PROPERTIES OF METALS:
➢ Generally lustrous, dense, and have high melting and boiling points.
➢ Good conductors of electricity
➢ Good conductors of heat
➢ Malleable (easy to bend or hammer into shape) and ductile (may be drawn into wire)

Intramolecular Forces – are forces that hold atoms in a molecule

Intermolecular Forces - are forces exist between molecules or particles
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTRAMOLECULAR AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCE
TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

Intermolecular Forces Nature of interaction Strength

Ion-dipole Forces Interaction of an ion with the charge end of Strong

another molecule

Hydrogen bond A special type of dipole-dipole formed Medium

between a partially positive hydrogen and a
neighboring molecule with a partially
negative. Only nitrogen, oxygen, and
fluorine atoms can participate in this type of
bonding.

Dipole-dipole Forces An interaction between two polar molecules Weak

Dispersion Forces An interaction between molecules with Very Weak

temporary dipoles

Charged – induced A charge ions/dipoles can induce the Weak

Dipole Force distortion of the electron cloud of a
nonpolar molecule.

ION – DIPOLE FORCES DIPOLE – DIPOLE FORCES

HYDROGEN BONDING DISPERSION FORCES

CHARGED – INDUCED DIPOLE FORCE

An intermolecular force of attraction (IMFA) is simply an attractive force between neighboring
molecules. There are three common types, namely: London dispersion forces, Dipole-dipole, and
Hydrogen bonds.

London dispersion forces are present in molecules, regardless of the polarity. This is the weakest
among the intermolecular forces. They originate from the fluctuations of the electron distribution
around the molecule over time. Since larger molecules have larger electron clouds, they exhibit
stronger dispersion forces than smaller molecules. A very good example of a molecule that contains
only London dispersion forces is methane (CH4), the simplest hydrocarbon. It is a non-polar molecule
and is not capable of any other type of intermolecular force of attraction. Another example of a
hydrocarbon is octane (C8H18), a nonpolar molecule that exhibits only London dispersion forces as
well. Since octane is a bigger molecule than methane,

Dipole-dipole forces are present only in polar molecules (i.e., those with a net dipole moment). This
kind of force is stronger than London dispersion forces because polar molecules have a permanent
uneven distribution of electrons. An example of dipole-dipole attraction can be seen in hydrogen
chloride (HCl). This is because the electronegativity difference between the H and the Cl atoms
make the covalent bond between them polar. Lastly, hydrogen bonds can be seen in a water
molecule (H2O) because hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom which is oxygen.

Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs in molecules having a
hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. It is the
strongest intermolecular force of attraction among the three.

Intermolecular forces are involved in phase changes. The IMFA in solids are very strong, thus the
particles are compact. The IMFA in liquids are not strong enough to keep the particles remain in fixed
positions so liquids generally tend to resemble the shape of their containers. The IMFA in gases are
extremely weak or almost negligible thus, particles are free to move around. Intermolecular forces of
attraction (IMFA) control how well molecules stick together. These affect many of the measurable
physical properties of substances.

The intermolecular forces are associated with the observable properties of various substances. The
physical properties of molecules depend upon the type and strength of their intermolecular forces of
attraction. These properties are solubility, melting point, boiling point, surface tension, viscosity,
capillary action, and evaporation rate.

When it comes to solubility, the solute and the solvent mix when they both exhibit the same
intermolecular forces of attraction. The melting and boiling points of substances with stronger IMFA
are higher compared to those with weaker IMFA.

In the case of surface tension, molecules with stronger intermolecular forces of attraction will exert
greater cohesive forces and acquire less surface area (higher surface tension) than those with
weaker IMFA.
Viscosity is also affected by intermolecular forces. Molecules with stronger intermolecular forces of
attraction have greater resistance to flow, and thus higher viscosity compared to those with weaker
IMFA.

Capillary action is something that you observe when you dip a paper towel in water, and the water
"magically" climbs up the towel. The water molecules climb up the towel and drag other water
molecules along the way. A better capillary action indicates stronger intermolecular forces. This trend
however is different in evaporation. The lower the evaporation rate, the weaker the intermolecular
force.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES

GASES
Gases have negligible intermolecular forces existing between their molecules. The predominant
intermolecular force in nonpolar gases and the noble gases are dispersion forces.
The weak intermolecular forces explain why gases diffuse easily and have no definite shape and
volume.
LIQUIDS
The type of intermolecular forces that exist between molecules in the liquid state depends on the
nature of the substance. The interplay of the motions of molecules and the presence of weak
intermolecular forces explains the characteristic properties of liquids.
➢ Fluidity – ability of the fluid to flow
➢ Viscosity – the resistance of the fluid to flow
➢ Diffusion – net flow of matter from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration
➢ Surface Tension – is defined as the force on the surface of a liquid that makes the
surface area
➢ Capillary Action – results from the competition between cohesive forces
(intermolecular forces within the liquid) and adhesive force (forces between different
substances). A meniscus is the convex and concave surface of a column of liquid
SOLIDS
➢ Crystalline Solids – have well-defined shape. Their particles exist in a highly ordered
arrangement. (ex: quartz, sugar, diamonds)
➢ Amorphous Solids – particles are organized in random patterns (ex: charcoal, rubber, and
glass)
PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

Criteria Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids

Shape Define and geometrical form No definite geometrical form

Melting point Well-defined melting point Melt over a wide range of temperatures

Compressibility Rigid and cannot be compressed Some are soft like a graphite

Cleavage Perfect cleavage when broken into pieces on Irregular cleavage when broken into pieces on plane
plane surfaces surfaces

TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

TYPE PARTICLES PROPERTIES EXAMPLES

MOLECULAR Molecules Fairly soft, low to moderate melting point, poor thermal and Oxygen, Dry Ice, Ice, Glucose
electrical conductors

IONIC Cation and Anion Hard and brittle, high melting point, nonconductors as solid Sodium Chloride, Magnesium
but conductors as aqueous solution oxide

NETWORK Atoms Very hard, very high melting point, poor thermal and Carbon (diamond and graphite),
COVALENT electrical conductors (except graphite) silicon dioxide

METALLIC Positive core Soft to hard, low to high melting point, good thermal and Sodium, Iron, Copper, Zinc
and delocalized electrical conductors, malleable and ductile
electrons
LIQUID CRYSTALS
It is a phase of matter whose order of particles is intermediate between that of a liquid and that of a
crystalline solid. In a crystalline solid state, the arrangement of molecules is regular, with a repeating
pattern in all directions.
➢ Nematic Phase
➢ Molecules lie in the same direction, but
their ends are not aligned.
➢ Cholesteric Phase
➢ Have similar arrangement to those in
nematic phase. However, each layer is
rotated or fixed angle with respect to the
next layer
➢ Smectic Phase
➢ Closely resembles the solid phase. They
are ordered between layers but can float
around freely.

APPLICATION OF LIQUID CRYSTALS

• Computer monitor
• Laptop screen
• Clocks
• Navigation system
LATTICE – arrangement of particles in a crystalline solids/liquids

Chemical Structure Composition Types of Chemical Bonds

Giant Ionic Lattice ions Ionic bond

Giant Metallic Lattice Positive core or Metallic bond

delocalized electrons

Giant Covalent Network or Giant atoms Covalent bond

Molecular Lattice

Covalent Molecular (small and big molecules Covalent bond between atoms
molecules) and intermolecular forces
between molecules

The types of chemical structures may be

determined using:
➢ electronic absorption spectroscopy
➢ x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
➢ x-ray crystallography
➢ nuclear magnetic resonance
➢ infrared spectroscopy