INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

HYDROGEN BOND
UNIT 1: FORCES OF ATTRACTION
- is the attraction between a highly
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
electronegative atom (such as nitrogen, oxygen,
- are attractive forces between molecules. and fluorine) and a hydrogen atom covalently
bonded to another electronegative atom.
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
EX: H2O (Water)
- are attractive forces between atoms in a
molecule. ION DIPOLE INTERACTION

Generally, intermolecular forces are weaker - is the attractive forces between an ion and a
than intramolecular forces. polar molecule.

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES ION

MOLECULAR FORCES - is charged particle.

- is generally considered to consist of a group of DIPOLE

positive ions and a sea of electrons, which are
- refers to the attraction of the positive portion
free to move about among the ions.
of one molecule toward the negative portion of
- This accounts for the general properties of the other.
metals, such as their ability to conduct an
EX: Cl- and H2O (Chlorinated Water)
electric current.
DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTION
IONIC BOND
- occurs between polar covalent molecules
- is an electrostatic attraction between two
where one part of the molecule has a partial
oppositely charged ions.
positive charge and the other part a partial
- This is a strong force of attraction in an ionic negative charge.
compound where in each negative ion is
EX: HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
surrounded by positive ions and each positive
ion is surrounded by negative ions. VAN DER WAAL FORCES

COVALENT BOND - occur between non polar covalent molecules.

- is the attractive force that requires a very high Types of Van Der Waals Forces:
temperature to reach its melting and boiling
points.  London Dispersion Force

- It is the attractive force present in  Debye Force

macromolecular substances, such as diamond.
 Kessom Interaction
Example: CH4 (Methane)  Types of Crystals:

BOND ANIMATION Ionic Crystals are formed from the attraction

 In covalent bonding, uneven
distribution of charge results in polar
bond.
 If the share of electron is equal, it
results in nonpolar bond.
WAYS TO DETERMINING BOND POLARITY
DIFFERENCE IN ELECTRONEGATIVITY
- The electronegativity values can help predict if
the bond is polar, nonpolar, or ionic.
between positive and negative ions, brittle and
hard, with high melting points.
Covalent Crystals are formed from the
attraction between one or more pairs of
electron shared, very hard, with very high
melting points.
 Types of Crystals:
Molecular Crystals possess intermolecular
forces, soft, with low to moderate melting
points.

Metallic Crystals formed from attraction

between metal ions and surrounding mobile
electrons, lustrous, soft to hard, with high
melting points.

DIPOLE MOMENT Allotropes are crystalline solids that has more

than one form.
- Dipole moment is the product of the charges
at one center times the distance between the
positive and the negative centers.

- Dipole moment is used if a molecule is

consisting of more than two atoms.

UNIT 2: PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUID

PROPERTY OF SOLIDS

 Two Types of Solids:

SEVEN FORMS OF CRYSTAL
Amorphous Solids are solids without orderly
arrangement of particles and no definite
melting points. (Ex. Glass)

Crystalline Solids are solids with orderly

arrangement of particles and have definite
melting points.

(Ex. Diamond)
  Seven Forms of Crystals:
Cubic - all axes the same length and all angles
90°.
Hexagonal - two axes the same length, two
angles 90°, and one angle 120°
Monoclinic - no axes the same length and two
angles 90°
Orthorhombic - no axes the same length and all
angles 90°
 Seven Forms of Crystals:
Rhombohedral - all axes the same length and all
angles equal but not 90°.
Tetragonal - two axes the same length and all
angles 90°.
Triclinic - no axes the same length, no angles
the same, and no angles 90°.
 Three Main Properties of Solids:
Freezing Point is the temperature at which a
liquid is changed into solid.
Melting Point is the temperature at which a
solid is changed into a liquid.
The stronger the force of attraction, the higher
the melting and freezing points.
 Three Main Properties of Solids:
Sublimation is the direct conversion of a solid
into vapor without passing through its liquid
state.
PROPERTIES OF LIQUID
 Five Main Properties of Liquids:
Vapor Pressure is the pressure exerted by the
gaseous form of a substance when it is in
equilibrium with the liquid state.
 Strong intermolecular force yields to low
vapor pressure.
 As the temperature increases, the vapor
pressure increases.
Boiling Point is the temperature at which the
vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the
pressure of the surrounding atmosphere.
 Polar substances have higher boiling
point than non-polar substances.
 In comparison between non-polar
substances, higher molecular weight
will have higher normal boiling point.
Viscosity is the resistance to flow of a liquid.
 Strong intermolecular force yields to
high viscosity.
Surface Tension is the amount of energy
required to stretch or increase the surface of a
liquid by a unit area.
 Strong intermolecular force yields to
high surface tension.
Capillary Action is the drawing of a liquid inside SPECIFIC HEAT
a small- bore tube.
- The amount of heat energy required to raise
 Adhesion is the intermolecular the temperature of one gram of the substance
attraction between unlike molecules. by one degree Celsius.
 Cohesion is the intermolecular
attraction between like molecules.
 Strong force of attraction yields to
cohesion.

UNIT 3: HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS AND LIQUID

CHANGES IN THE PHASES OF MATTER

HEAT OF FUSION

 Latent Heat of Fusion

- the amount of heat that is absorbed by a solid

as it melts into liquid at constant temperature.
HEAT TRANSFER  Molar Heat of Fusion
- refers to the conversion and exchange of - the amount of energy required to melt one
thermal energy that results to change in phase mole of solid.
of matter.
HEAT OF FUSION TABLE
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

 Latent Heat of Vaporization

- the amount of heat that is absorbed by a liquid

at its boiling point to change it to vapor at the
same temperature.

 Molar Heat of Vaporization

- the amount of energy required to vaporize one

mole of a liquid.

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION TABLE PHASE DIAGRAM

It is a graph giving the relationship among the

solid, liquid, and gaseous states of a given
substance as a function of the temperature and
pressure.

TRIPLE POINT

FORMULAS: The condition where the three phases of matter

is in equilibrium.
Heat:
 Critical Point
Q = mcΔT
- The condition where a liquid instantaneously
Heat of Fusion:
turns into vapor upon heating.
Q = mHf
- It occurs at critical temperature andcritical
Heat of Vaporization: pressure.

Q = mHv - Critical Temperature is the temperature above

which a gas will not liquefy.
UNIT 4: PHASE DIAGRAM
- Critical Pressure is the minimum pressure
necessary to bring about liquefaction at critical
temperature.
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF WATER UNIT 5: WAYS OF EXPRESSING
CONCENTRATIONS
1. Water is probably the most common and
most abundant chemical compound on the  Percentage by Mass:
Earth.
% = (mass of solute/mass of solution)(100)
2. Water covers approximately 75% of the
Earth's surface and is necessary for all living  Percentage by Volume:
organisms.
% = (volume of solute/volume of solution)(100)
3. Pure water at room temperature is a
 Percentage by Mass over Volume:
colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid.
% = (mass of solute/mL of solution)(100)
4. Water has the highest specific heat of liquids
and solids except NH3. Solution = Solute + Solvent

5. Water has the highest heat of fusion of all PARTS PER MILLION
molecular solids except NH3.
 The amount of solute in the given
6. Water has the highest heat of vaporization of solution is very small
all molecular substances.  Ppm= mass of solution (mg) / volume
solution (L)
7. Water has the highest surface tension of all
molecular solids. PARTS PER BILLION

8. Water has the highest thermal conductivity of  Ppb= Mass of Solute ( microgram- ug) /
all molecular liquids. Volume solution ( L)

PHASE CHANGES OF WATER MOLE FRACTION

- A component (solute and solvent) is defined as

the number of moles of the component divided
by the total moles of all the components.

 Mole Fraction (solute) = moles of

solute/moles of solution
 Mole Fraction (solvent) = moles of
solvent/moles of solution
 Moles of Solution = moles of solute +
moles of solvent
MOLALITY (m)
- The number of moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent. The unit of measurement is
mole/kilogram or molal.
 Molality = moles of solute/kilograms of
solvent
MOLARITY (M)
- The number of moles of a solute per liter of
solution. The unit of measurement is
moles/Liter or molar.
 Molarity = moles of solute/Liter of
solution
NORMALITY (N)
- Of a solution is the number of equivalents of
solute per liter of solution. The unit of
measurement is equivalent/Liter or normal.
Normality = number of equivalents of
solute/Liter of solution
No. of Equivalent Solute = mass of
solute/equivalent weight
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT:
(Acid) Equivalent Weight = Molecular
Weight/No. of Replaceable H+
(Base) Equivalent Weight = Molecular
Weight/No. of Replaceable OH-
(Salt) Equivalent Weight = Molecular
Weight/No. of + or – Charges
DILUTION
- is the decrease in concentration of a solution
by the addition of more solvent.
Concentrated (Molarity)(Volume) = Diluted
(Molarity)(Volume)
TITRATION
- The process of progressive addition of solution
(acid or base) of known concentration to known
amount of an acid or base of unknown
concentration.
Acid (Molarity)(Volume) = Base
(Molarity)(Volume)
STOICHIOMETRIC SOLUTION
- is a process of using chemical equation to
calculate relative masses, volumes, and moles
of reactants and products.
- It describes the quantitative relationships
among elements in compound and among
substances as they undergo chemical changes.
How to solve problems with chemical
equations?
- Write the balance equation for the
reaction.
- Calculate the moles of reactants.
- Calculate the moles of products, if
needed.
- Calculate what is being asked.
- Convert the units, if required.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION RAUOLT’S LAW

- These are properties that are dependent on - It states that the vapor pressure of a
the number of solute particles that are component in a solution depends on its mole
dissolved in a given quantity of the solvent. fraction multiplied by the vapor pressure
exerted by the pure component.
 Freezing Point Depression
 Boiling Point Elevation  Formula:
 Vapor Pressure Lowering ΔP = (P°)(mfsolute)
 Osmotic Pressure
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
- It is the change in the freezing point of a
- It is the pressure required to stop the osmosis
volatile solvent caused by non-volatile solute.
of a solution.
 Formula:
-Osmosis is the movement of solvent from a
ΔTf = Kfm region of lower solute to a region of higher
solute.
- It is the difference between the normal boiling
point of water and higher boiling point of an  Formula:
aqueous solution of a non-volatile and non- π = MRT
electrolyte solute.
UNIT 6: PHASES OF MATTER AND PHASE
 Formula: CHANGE

ΔTb = Kbm PHASE

- Depends on strength of forces of attraction

between particles.

SOLIDS

 Definite shape and volume.

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING
- The vapor pressure of any pure solvent will be
lowered by the addition of a non-volatile solute
in a solution.
 Most dense phase
- Difficult to compress.
- Exception is water.
 Particles vibrate in fixed positions
 Crystalline lattice structure.
 Most attraction between particles.

- Francois Marie Raoult (1830-1901) extensively Note:

studied the vapor pressure of solution and
come up with Raoult's Law. Amorphous solids include glass, plastic,
wax, and silly putty
LIQUIDS POTENTIAL ENERGY VS KINETIC ENERGY

 Definite volume  Potential Energy

 No definite shape - stored energy
 Hard to compress - Energy can be stored in bonds
 Particles slide past each other between atoms
 Forces of attraction between particles  Kinetic Energy
still high - Energy of motion
- All atoms are moving and vibrating
GASES unless at absolute zero

 No definite shape or volume

 Expands to fill container
 Lowest density
- Density depends on pressure
 Little attraction between particles

“Vapor” = a gaseous state of something that

is normally liquid (Ex: water vapor) ENERGY AND CHANGES IN MATTER

SUBLIMATION  Exothermic Change: A + B → C + D +

energy
 Directly from the solid phase to the gas
- Energy is released or “ex”its
phase.
 Endothermic Change: A + B + energy →
 Happens with substances with weak
C+D
intermolecular forces of attraction
- Energy is absorbed or “en”ters
They separate easily!
ENERGY DURING PHASE CHANGES
Ex: CO2(s) dry ice, Iodine
 Solid - Liquid, Liquid - Gas
CO2(s) → CO2 (g) - Endothermic
- Energy is absorbed and overcomes
ENERGY attractive forces between particles
 Gas - Liquid, Liquid – Solid
- capacity to do work or produce heat. It can be
- Exothermic
anything that causes matter to move or change
- As particles come closer together
direction.
energy is released
Ex: electrical, atomic, mechanical, chemical

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

- Energy can’t be created or destroyed, just

transferred from one form to another.
 HEAT ENERGY
 Also called Thermal energy, it makes
particles move more as it is added
 Measured in Joules or calories.
HEAT FLOW
 Heat energy travels from an object of
higher temp. to one of lower temp.
Until both reach the same temp.
TEMPERATURE
 Measure of the average kinetic energy
(motion) of all the particles in a sample.
 Not a form of energy!!!
- But if you add heat energy or take it
away, it causes particles to move faster
or slower and thus changes the temp.
SOLUTIONS
MIXTURE – A REVIEW
 Mixture: a combination of two or
more substances that do not
combine chemically, but remain the
same individual substances; can be
separated by physical means.
 Two types:
- Heterogeneous
- Homogeneous
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE
 “Hetero” means “different”
 Consists of visibly different substances
or phases (solid, liquid, gas)
 Can be separated by filtering
 Example: Trail Mix
HOMOENEOUS MIXTURE
 “Homo” means the same
 has the same uniform appearance and
composition throughout; maintain one
phase (solid, liquid, gas)
 Commonly referred to as solutions
 Example: Salt water
SOLUTIONS
 Solution: a mixture of two or more
substances that is identical throughout
(homogeneous)
 can be physically separated
 composed of solutes and solvents
(Solutes: the substance being dissolved)
(Solvents: the substance that dissolves
the solute).
SOLUTION
 The solvent is the largest part of the
solution and the solute is the smallest
part of the solution.
TYPES OF SOLUTION
 Gaseous solutions – air = Oxygen +
Nitrogen
 Liquid solutions – drinks = mix + water
 Solid solutions – alloys = steel, brass,
etc
CONCENTRATION
- the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at
a given temperature.
- described as dilute if it has a low concentration
of solute dissolved.
- described as concentrated if it has a high
concentration of solute dissolved.
  Unsaturated - has a less than the
maximum concentration of solute
dissolved
 Saturated - has the maximum
concentration of solute dissolved (can
see solid in bottom of solution)
 Supersaturated -contains more
dissolved solute than normally possible
(usually requires an increase in
temperature followed by cooling)
SOLUBILITY
- The amount of solute that dissolves in a
certain amount of a solvent at a given
temperature and pressures to produce a
saturated solution.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS
 TEMPERATURE
- increased temperature causes solids
to dissolve faster.
 SHAKING
- Shaking (agitation) causes solids to
dissolve faster.
 PARTICLE SIZE
- Smaller particles dissolve faster
because they have more surface area.
MISCIBLE
- Liquids can easily dissolve in one another.
IMMISCIBLE
- Liquids are not soluble in each other.
POLARITY AND DISSOLVING
Chemists use the saying “like dissolves like”:
- Polar solutes tend to dissolve in polar solvents.
- Nonpolar solutes tend to dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.
SOLUBILITY CURVES
- Generally, the solubility of solid solutes in
liquid solvents increases with increasing
temperature.
- To read the graph, find the line for the
substance. The amount that dissolves at a given
temperature is on the y- axis.
 A point on the line is a saturated
solution.
 Above the line is supersaturated.
 Below the line is unsaturated.
MOLE FRACTION
 Mole fraction solute= moles solute /
moles solute+ moles solvent
MOLALITY
 m= moles solute / kg solvent
MOLARITY (M)
 Molarity is the concentration of a
solution expressed in moles of solute
per Liter of solution.
 Molarity is a conversion factor for
calculations
Molarity (M) = moles of solute/ Liters of
solution
DILUTIONS
- Use this formula to make a more dilute
solution from a concentrated solution.
MASS PERCENT
 Solutions can also be represented as
percent of solute in a specific mass of
solution.
 For a solid dissolved in water, you use
percent by mass which is Mass Percent.
 % VOLUME
% v/v = V solute / Vsolution * 100
 % DENSITY
%= M solute / Vsolution * 100
PARTS PER MILLION & BILLION
 Ppm= mass of solute (mg) / volume
solution ( L)
 Ppb =mass of solute (ug- microgram) /
volume of solution ( L)
SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
 When we previously did stoichiometry
for a reaction to determine theoretical
yield, we only worked with GRAMS and
MOLES
 Ex/ How many MOLES of HCl are
required to react with 13 GRAMS of
zinc?
Zn + 2 HCl � ZnCl2 + H2
 But we may be given something OTHER
than grams and moles
 We can use stoichiometry to solve for
ANY unit. We just need to make sure
units cancel out and we end up with the
unit we are trying to solve for!
 The mole ratio using coefficients from
the balanced chemical equation is the
key to switching between compounds
UNIT 7: SOLUTIONS
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two
or more substances.
Homogeneous Mixture is a mixture in
which one of the substances often change
in form and contains variable proportions.
(Ex. Sugar in Water)
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solid Solutions are solids in which one
component is randomly dispersed in an
atomic or molecular scale throughout
another component.
(Ex. Alloys)
Liquid Solutions is made by dissolving a gas,
liquid, or solid in a liquid.
(Ex. Vinegar and Soy Sauce)
Aqueous Solutions is a liquid solution if the
liquid is water.
(Ex. Salt in Water)
Gaseous Solutions are made by mixing gas
one gas with another gas.
(Ex. Atmosphere)
COMPONENTS OF SOLUTION
Solute is present in lesser quantity; thus, it
disperse/dissolve in a solvent.
Solvent is present in greater quantity; thus,
it dissolves other substances.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS
AMOUNT OF SOLUTE
Diluted Solution which contains relatively
small amount of solute.
Concentrated Solution which contains
relatively large amount of solute.
DEGREE OF SATURATION
Saturated Solution contains maximum
amount of solute that can be dissolve at a
given temperature.
Unsaturated Solution contains less than the
maximum amount of solute at a given
temperature.
Supersaturated Solution contains more
than the maximum amount of solute at a
given temperature.
BASED ON MISCIBILITY
Miscible if two liquids dissolve in each other
in any proportions.
Partially Miscible if two liquid components
are mixed in certain proportions but form
two phases when mixed in different
proportions.
Immiscible if two components are insoluble
in each other.
HEAT DURING FORMATION
Exothermic Solution when heat evolves or
escapes in the surrounding during
formation.
Endothermic Solution when heat absorbs
from the surrounding during formation.
BASED ON CONCENTRATION
Isotonic Solution is a solution that has the
same osmotic pressure.
Hypotonic Solution is a solution that has a
lower osmotic pressure in the body than the
cells of the body.
Hypertonic Solutions is a solution that has a
higher osmotic pressure in the body than
the cells of the body.
FACTORS AFFECTINGTHE RATE OF
SOLUBILITY
Solubility is the property of a substance to
form uniform mixtures with other
substance, wherein the weight of a
substance dissolves in a given volume at a
given temperature.
 Temperature- the higher the
temperature, the faster the solute
to dissolve.
 Stirring - the faster we stir
constantly, the faster the solute to
dissolve.
 Particle Size - the smaller the
particle, the faster the solute to
dissolve.
 Nature of Solution -“Like dissolves
like.”
 Pressure - the higher the pressure,
the faster the solute to dissolve.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS RAOULT’S LAW

- These are properties that are dependent on
the number of solute particles that are
dissolved in a given quantity of the solvent.
 Freezing Point Depression
 Boiling Point Elevation
 Vapor Pressure Depression
 Osmotic Pressure
FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
- It is the change in the freezing point of a
volatile solvent caused by non-volatile solute.
 Formula:
ΔTf = -Kfm
- It states that the vapor pressure of a
component in a solution depends on its mle
fraction multiplied by the vapor pressure
exerted by the pure component.
 Formula:
ΔP = (P°)(nf solute)
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
It is the pressure required to stop the osmosis
of a solution.
Osmosis is the movement of solvent from a
region of lower solute to a region of higher
solute.

BOILING POINT ELEVATION  Formula:

π = MRT
- It is the difference between the normal boiling
point of water and higher boiling point of an
aqeous solution of a non-volatile and non-
electrolyte solute.

 Formula:
ΔTb = Kfm

VAPOR PRESSURE DEPRESSION

 The vapor pressure of any pure solvent

will be lowered by the addition of a
non-volatile solute in a solution.
 Francois Marie Raoult (1830-1901)
extensively studied the vapor pressure
of solution and come up with Raoult's
Law.