Magnesium

Magnesium is a chemical element; it has symbol Mg

and atomic number 12. It is a shiny gray metal
Magnesium, 12Mg
having a low density, low melting point and high
chemical reactivity. Like the other alkaline earth
metals (group 2 of the periodic table) it occurs
naturally only in combination with other elements
and it almost always has an oxidation state of +2. It
reacts readily with air to form a thin passivation
coating of magnesium oxide that inhibits further
corrosion of the metal. The free metal burns with a
brilliant-white light. The metal is obtained mainly by
electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine. Magnesium
It is less dense than aluminium and is used primarily Pronunciation /mæɡˈniːziəm/ ​
as a component in strong and lightweight alloys that
(mag-NEE -zee-əm)
contain aluminium.
Appearance shiny grey solid
In the cosmos, magnesium is produced in large,
aging stars by the sequential addition of three helium Standard atomic weight Ar°(Mg)
nuclei to a carbon nucleus. When such stars explode [24.304, 24.307]
as supernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled
24.305 ± 0.002 (abridged)[1]
into the interstellar medium where it may recycle into
new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most Magnesium in the periodic table
abundant element in the Earth's crust[12] and the
Be
fourth most common element in the Earth (after iron, ↑
oxygen and silicon), making up 13% of the planet's Mg
↓
mass and a large fraction of the planet's mantle. It is Ca
the third most abundant element dissolved in sodium ← magnesium → aluminium
seawater, after sodium and chlorine.[13]
Atomic number (Z) 12
This element is the eleventh most abundant element Group group 2 (alkaline earth
by mass in the human body and is essential to all metals)
cells and some 300 enzymes.[14] Magnesium ions Period period 3
interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP,
DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes require Block s-block
magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds Electron [Ne] 3s2
are used medicinally as common laxatives and configuration
antacids (such as milk of magnesia), and to stabilize
Electrons per 2, 8, 2
abnormal nerve excitation or blood vessel spasm in
shell
such conditions as eclampsia.[14]
Physical properties
Phase at STP solid
Melting point 923 K ​(650 °C, ​1202 °F)
Characteristics Boiling point 1363 K ​(1091 °C, ​1994 °F)
Density (near r.t.) 1.738 g/cm3
when liquid 1.584 g/cm3
Physical properties (at m.p.)

Elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight Heat of fusion 8.48 kJ/mol

metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Heat of 128 kJ/mol
Magnesium has the lowest melting (923 K (650 °C)) vaporization
and the lowest boiling point (1,363 K (1,090 °C)) of
Molar heat 24.869[2] J/(mol·K)
all the alkaline earth metals.[15]
capacity
Pure polycrystalline magnesium is brittle and easily Vapor pressure
fractures along shear bands. It becomes much more
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
malleable when alloyed with small amounts of other
metals, such as 1% aluminium.[16] The malleability at T (K) 701 773 861 971 1132 1361
of polycrystalline magnesium can also be
significantly improved by reducing its grain size to Atomic properties
ca. 1 micron or less.[17] Oxidation states 0,[3] +1,[4] +2 (a strongly
basic oxide)
When finely powdered, magnesium reacts with water
to produce hydrogen gas: Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.31
Ionization 1st: 737.7 kJ/mol
Mg(s) + 2H2O(g) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
energies 2nd: 1450.7 kJ/mol
+ 1203.6 kJ/mol
3rd: 7732.7 kJ/mol
However, this reaction is much less dramatic than the
(more)
reactions of the alkali metals with water, because the
magnesium hydroxide builds up on the surface of the Atomic radius empirical: 160 pm
magnesium metal and inhibits further reaction.[18] Covalent radius 141±7 pm
Van der Waals 173 pm
Chemical properties radius

General chemistry
Spectral lines of magnesium
It tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although, Other properties
unlike the heavier alkaline earth metals, an oxygen-
Natural primordial
free environment is unnecessary for storage because
occurrence
magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide that
is fairly impermeable and difficult to remove.[19] Crystal structure ​ exagonal close-packed
h
(hcp)
Direct reaction of magnesium with air or oxygen at
ambient pressure forms only the "normal" oxide
MgO. However, this oxide may be combined with Speed of sound 4940 m/s (at r.t.)
hydrogen peroxide to form magnesium peroxide, thin rod (annealed)
MgO2 , and at low temperature the peroxide may be Thermal 24.8[5] µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
further reacted with ozone to form magnesium expansion
superoxide Mg(O2 )2 .[20]
Thermal 156[6] W/(m⋅K)
conductivity
Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, Electrical 43.9[7] nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a resistivity
similar group 2 metal.[19] When submerged in water,
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the
metal; this reaction happens much more rapidly with Molar magnetic +13.1 × 10−6 cm3/mol
powdered magnesium.[19] The reaction also occurs susceptibility (298 K)[8]
faster with higher temperatures (see § Safety Young's modulus 45 GPa
precautions). Magnesium's reversible reaction with
water can be harnessed to store energy and run a Shear modulus 17 GPa
magnesium-based engine. Magnesium also reacts Bulk modulus 35.4[9] GPa
exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric Poisson ratio 0.290
acid (HCl), producing the metal chloride and
hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with Mohs hardness 1–2.5
aluminium, zinc, and many other metals.[21] Brinell hardness 44–260 MPa
CAS Number 7439-95-4
Flammability History
Naming after Magnesia, Greece[10]
Magnesium is highly flammable, especially when
powdered or shaved into thin strips, though it is Discovery Joseph Black (1755[10])
difficult to ignite in mass or bulk.[19] Flame First isolation Humphry Davy (1808[10])
temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys
Isotopes of magnesium
can reach 3,100 °C (5,610 °F),[22] although flame
height above the burning metal is usually less than
Main isotopes[11] Decay
300 mm (12 in).[23] Once ignited, such fires are
difficult to extinguish because they resist several abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
substances commonly used to put out fires; 24
Mg 79% stable
combustion continues in nitrogen (forming
magnesium nitride), in carbon dioxide (forming 25
Mg 10% stable
magnesium oxide and carbon), and in water (forming
26
magnesium oxide and hydrogen, which also Mg 11% stable
combusts due to heat in the presence of additional
oxygen). This property was used in incendiary weapons during the firebombing of cities in World War II,
where the only practical civil defense was to smother a burning flare under dry sand to exclude atmosphere
from the combustion.

Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that
ignites only at a very high temperature.

Organic chemistry

Organomagnesium compounds are widespread in organic chemistry. They are commonly found as
Grignard reagents. Magnesium can react with haloalkanes to give Grignard reagents. Examples of Grignard
reagents are phenylmagnesium bromide and ethylmagnesium bromide. The Grignard reagents function as a
common nucleophile, attacking the electrophilic group such as the carbon atom that is present within the
polar bond of a carbonyl group.

A prominent organomagnesium reagent beyond Grignard reagents is magnesium anthracene with

magnesium, forming a 1,4-bridge over the central ring. It is used as a source of highly active magnesium.
The related butadiene-magnesium adduct serves as a source for the butadiene dianion.
Magnesium in organic chemistry also appears as low valent magnesium compounds, primarily with the
magnesium forming diatomic ions in the +1 oxidation state but more recently also with zero oxidation state
or a mixture of +1 and zero states.[24] Such compounds find synthetic application as reducing agents and
sources of nucleophilic metal atoms.

Source of light

When burning in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light that includes strong ultraviolet
wavelengths. Magnesium powder (flash powder) was used for subject illumination in the early days of
photography.[25][26] Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography
flashbulbs. Magnesium powder is used in fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is
required. It was also used for various theatrical effects,[27] such as lightning,[28] pistol flashes,[29] and
supernatural appearances.[30]

Detection in solution

The presence of magnesium ions can be detected by the addition of ammonium chloride, ammonium
hydroxide and monosodium phosphate to an aqueous or dilute HCl solution of the salt. The formation of a
white precipitate indicates the presence of magnesium ions.

Azo violet dye can also be used, turning deep blue in the presence of an alkaline solution of magnesium
salt. The color is due to the adsorption of azo violet by Mg(OH)2 .

Occurrence

Magnesium is the eighth-most-abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and tied in seventh place with
iron in molarity.[12] It is found in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals, and in mineral
waters, where magnesium ion is soluble.

Although magnesium is found in more than 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc,
and olivine are of commercial importance.
2+
The Mg cation is the second-most-abundant cation in seawater (about 1 ⁄8 the mass of sodium ions in a
given sample), which makes seawater and sea salt attractive commercial sources for Mg. To extract the
magnesium, calcium hydroxide is added to seawater to form magnesium hydroxide precipitate.

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2

Magnesium hydroxide (brucite) is insoluble in water and can be filtered out and reacted with hydrochloric
acid to produced concentrated magnesium chloride.

Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + 2 H2O

From magnesium chloride, electrolysis produces magnesium.

Forms

Alloys

As of 2013, magnesium alloys consumption was less

than one million tonnes per year, compared with 50
million tonnes of aluminium alloys. Their use has
been historically limited by the tendency of Mg
alloys to corrode,[31] creep at high temperatures, and
combust.[32]

Corrosion

In magnesium alloys, the presence of iron, nickel,

copper, or cobalt strongly activates corrosion. In Magnesium is brittle, and fractures along shear
more than trace amounts, these metals precipitate as bands when its thickness is reduced by only 10% by
intermetallic compounds, and the precipitate locales cold rolling (top). However, after alloying Mg with 1%
function as active cathodic sites that reduce water, Al and 0.1% Ca, its thickness could be reduced by
[32] 54% using the same process (bottom).
causing the loss of magnesium. Controlling the
quantity of these metals improves corrosion
resistance. Sufficient manganese overcomes the
corrosive effects of iron. This requires precise control over composition, increasing costs.[32] Adding a
cathodic poison captures atomic hydrogen within the structure of a metal. This prevents the formation of
free hydrogen gas, an essential factor of corrosive chemical processes. The addition of about one in three
hundred parts arsenic reduces the corrosion rate of magnesium in a salt solution by a factor of nearly
ten.[32][33]

High-temperature creep and flammability

Magnesium's tendency to creep (gradually deform) at high temperatures is greatly reduced by alloying with
zinc and rare-earth elements.[34] Flammability is significantly reduced by a small amount of calcium in the
alloy.[32] By using rare-earth elements, it may be possible to manufacture magnesium alloys that are able to
not catch fire at higher temperatures compared to magnesium's liquidus and in some cases potentially
pushing it close to magnesium's boiling point.[35]

Compounds

Magnesium forms a variety of compounds important to industry and biology, including magnesium
carbonate, magnesium chloride, magnesium citrate, magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia), magnesium
oxide, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate (Epsom salts).

Isotopes
Magnesium has three stable isotopes: 24 Mg, 25 Mg and 26 Mg. All are present in significant amounts in
nature (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is 24 Mg. The isotope 28 Mg is radioactive and in the
1950s to 1970s was produced by several nuclear power plants for use in scientific experiments. This
isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and its use was limited by shipping times.

The nuclide 26 Mg has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium. 26 Mg is a
radiogenic daughter product of 26 Al, which has a half-life of 717,000 years. Excessive quantities of stable
26 Mg have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. This

anomalous abundance is attributed to the decay of its parent 26 Al in the inclusions, and researchers
conclude that such meteorites were formed in the solar nebula before the 26 Al had decayed. These are
among the oldest objects in the Solar System and contain preserved information about its early history.

It is conventional to plot 26 Mg/24 Mg against an Al/Mg ratio. In an isochron dating plot, the Al/Mg ratio
plotted is27 Al/24 Mg. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial 26 Al/27 Al
ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir.

Production
World production was approximately 1,100 kt in 2017, with the
bulk being produced in China (930 kt) and Russia (60 kt).[36] The
United States was in the 20th century the major world supplier of
this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as
1995. Since the Chinese mastery of the Pidgeon process the US
market share is at 7%, with a single US producer left: US
Magnesium, a Renco Group company in Utah born from now-
defunct Magcorp.[37]

In September 2021, China took steps to reduce production of Magnesium sheets and ingots
magnesium as a result of a government initiative to reduce energy
availability for manufacturing industries, leading to a significant
price increase.[38]

Pidgeon process

China is almost completely reliant on the silicothermic Pidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high
temperatures with silicon, often provided by a ferrosilicon alloy in which the iron is but a spectator in the
reactions) to obtain the metal.[39] The process can also be carried out with carbon at approx 2300 °C:

2MgO(s) + Si(s) + 2CaO(s) → 2Mg(g) + Ca2SiO4(s)

MgO(s) + C(s) → Mg(g) + CO(g)

Dow process

In the United States, magnesium is obtained principally with the Dow process, by electrolysis of fused
2+
magnesium chloride from brine and sea water. A saline solution containing Mg ions is first treated with
lime (calcium oxide) and the precipitated magnesium hydroxide is collected:

Mg2+ 2+
(aq) + CaO(s) + H 2O → Ca(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)

The hydroxide is then converted to a partial hydrate of magnesium chloride by treating the hydroxide with
hydrochloric acid and heating of the product:
 Mg(OH)2(s) + 2 HCl → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2+
The salt is then electrolyzed in the molten state. At the cathode, the Mg ion is reduced by two electrons to
magnesium metal:
2+ −
Mg + 2 e → Mg
−
At the anode, each pair of Cl ions is oxidized to chlorine gas, releasing two electrons to complete the
circuit:
− −
2 Cl → Cl2 (g) + 2 e

YSZ process

A new process, solid oxide membrane technology, involves the electrolytic reduction of MgO. At the
2+
cathode, Mg ion is reduced by two electrons to magnesium metal. The electrolyte is yttria-stabilized
2−
zirconia (YSZ). The anode is a liquid metal. At the YSZ/liquid metal anode O is oxidized. A layer of
graphite borders the liquid metal anode, and at this interface carbon and oxygen react to form carbon
monoxide. When silver is used as the liquid metal anode, there is no reductant carbon or hydrogen needed,
and only oxygen gas is evolved at the anode.[40] It has been reported that this method provides a 40%
reduction in cost per pound over the electrolytic reduction method.[41]

History
The name magnesium originates from the Greek word for locations related to the tribe of the Magnetes,
either a district in Thessaly called Magnesia[42] or Magnesia ad Sipylum, now in Turkey.[43] It is related to
magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate
substances. See manganese for this history.

In 1618, a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a local well. The cows
refused to drink because of the water's bitter taste, but the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal
scratches and rashes. The substance obtained by evaporating the water became known as Epsom salts and
its fame spread.[44] It was eventually recognized as hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgSO4 ·7 H2 O.

The metal itself was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in England in 1808. He used electrolysis on a
mixture of magnesia and mercuric oxide.[45] Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy's
first suggestion for a name was 'magnium',[45] but the name magnesium is now used in most European
languages.

Uses as a metal
Magnesium is the third-most-commonly-used structural metal, following iron and aluminium.[46] The main
applications of magnesium are, in order: aluminium alloys, die-casting (alloyed with zinc),[47] removing
sulfur in the production of iron and steel, and the production of titanium in the Kroll process.[48]

Magnesium is used in lightweight materials and alloys. For example, when infused with silicon carbide
nanoparticles, it has extremely high specific strength.[49]
Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace
construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as
early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World
War II. The Germans coined the name "Elektron" for magnesium
alloy, a term which is still used today. In the commercial aerospace
industry, magnesium was generally restricted to engine-related
components, due to fire and corrosion hazards. Magnesium alloy
use in aerospace is increasing in the 21st century, driven by the
importance of fuel economy.[50] Recent developments in
metallurgy and manufacturing have allowed for the potential for
An unusual application of
magnesium alloys to act as replacements for aluminium and steel
magnesium as an illumination source
alloys in certain applications.[51][52] while wakeskating in 1931

Aircraft
Wright Aeronautical used a magnesium crankcase in the WWII-era Wright R-3350 Duplex
Cyclone aviation engine. This presented a serious problem for the earliest models of the
Boeing B-29 Superfortress heavy bomber when an in-flight engine fire ignited the engine
crankcase. The resulting combustion was as hot as 5,600 °F (3,100 °C) and could sever the
wing spar from the fuselage.[53][54][55]

Automotive
Mercedes-Benz used the alloy Elektron in the bodywork
of an early model Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR; these cars
competed in the 1955 World Sportscar Championship
including a win at the Mille Miglia, and at Le Mans where
one was involved in the 1955 Le Mans disaster when
spectators were showered with burning fragments of
elektron.[56]
Porsche used magnesium alloy frames in the 917/053 The Bugatti Type 57 Aérolithe
that won Le Mans in 1971, and continues to use featured a lightweight body made of
magnesium alloys for its engine blocks due to the weight Elektron, a trademarked magnesium
advantage.[57] alloy.
Volkswagen Group has used magnesium in its engine
components for many years.[58]
Mitsubishi Motors uses magnesium for its paddle shifters.[59]
BMW used magnesium alloy blocks in their N52 engine, including an aluminium alloy insert
for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high-temperature magnesium
alloy AJ62A. The engine was used worldwide between 2005 and 2011 in various 1, 3, 5, 6,
and 7 series models; as well as the Z4, X1, X3, and X5.[60]
Chevrolet used the magnesium alloy AE44 in the 2006 Corvette Z06.[61]

Both AJ62A and AE44 are recent developments in high-temperature low-creep magnesium alloys. The
general strategy for such alloys is to form intermetallic precipitates at the grain boundaries, for example by
adding mischmetal or calcium.[62]

Electronics
Because of low density and good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is used for
manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop and tablet computers, cameras, and other electronic
components.[63] It was used as a premium feature because of its light weight in some 2020 laptops.[64]

Magnesium materials in medicine

Recent research promises a high development potential of

Products made of magnesium:
firestarter and shavings, sharpener,
magnesium ribbon
magnesium materials as resorbable implant material (e.g. as stent)
for the human body. Common magnesium alloy elements are
calcium and zinc,[65] but also rare earth and silver are
investigated.[66] The contact corrosion behavior is a decisive
advantage when used as an implant material to be used for a limited
period of time, as it would dissolve without risk after a certain
period of time. This would eliminate the risks and costs of an
operation to remove the implant.

Other

Magnesium, being readily available and relatively nontoxic, has a variety of uses:

Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately 3,100 °C (3,370 K;

5,610 °F),[22] and the autoignition temperature of magnesium ribbon is approximately 473 °C
(746 K; 883 °F).[67] It produces intense, bright, white light when it burns. Magnesium's high
combustion temperature makes it a useful tool for starting emergency fires. Other uses
include flash photography, flares, pyrotechnics, fireworks sparklers, and trick birthday
candles. Magnesium is also often used to ignite thermite or other materials that require a
high ignition temperature. Magnesium continues to be used as an incendiary element in
warfare.[68]
In the form of turnings or ribbons, to prepare Grignard
reagents, which are useful in organic synthesis.
As an additive agent in conventional propellants and the
production of nodular graphite in cast iron.
As a reducing agent to separate uranium and other
metals from their salts.[69]
As a sacrificial (galvanic) anode to protect boats,
underground tanks, pipelines, buried structures, and
water heaters.
Alloyed with zinc to produce the zinc sheet used in Magnesium firestarter (in left hand),
photoengraving plates in the printing industry, dry-cell used with a pocket knife and flint to
battery walls, and roofing.[47] create sparks that ignite the
As a metal, this element's principal use is as an alloying shavings
additive to aluminium with these aluminium-magnesium
alloys being used mainly for beverage cans, sports
equipment such as golf clubs, fishing reels, and archery bows and arrows.
Specialty, high-grade car wheels of magnesium alloy are called "mag wheels", although the
term is often misapplied to aluminium wheels. Many car and aircraft manufacturers have
made engine and body parts from magnesium.
 Magnesium batteries have been commercialized as primary batteries, and are an active
topic of research for rechargeable batteries.[70]

Safety precautions

Magnesium metal and its alloys can be explosive hazards; they are
highly flammable in their pure form when molten or in powder or
ribbon form. Burning or molten magnesium reacts violently with
water. When working with powdered magnesium, safety glasses
with eye protection and UV filters (such as welders use) are
employed because burning magnesium produces ultraviolet light
Magnesium block heated with
that can permanently damage the retina of a human eye.[72]
blowtorch to self-combustion,
emitting intense white light
Magnesium is capable of reducing water and releasing highly
flammable hydrogen gas:[73]

Mg (s) + 2 H2O (l) → Magnesium

Mg(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g) Hazards
GHS labelling:
Therefore, water cannot extinguish
magnesium fires. The hydrogen gas Pictograms
produced intensifies the fire. Dry
sand is an effective smothering
agent, but only on relatively level Signal word Danger
and flat surfaces. Hazard H228, H251, H261
statements
Magnesium reacts with carbon Precautionary P210, P231, P235, P410, P422[71]
dioxide exothermically to form statements
magnesium oxide and carbon:[74]
NFPA 704 https://cameochemicals.noaa.gov/chemical/6949
2 Mg + CO2 → 2 MgO + C (fire diamond)
(s)
1
0 1
Hence, carbon dioxide fuels rather
than extinguishes magnesium fires.

Burning magnesium can be quenched by using a Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher, or by covering the
fire with sand or magnesium foundry flux to remove its air source.[75]

Useful compounds
Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide (MgO), are used as a refractory material in furnace
linings for producing iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and cement. Magnesium oxide and other
magnesium compounds are also used in the agricultural, chemical, and construction industries. Magnesium
oxide from calcination is used as an electrical insulator in fire-resistant cables.[76]

Magnesium hydride is under investigation as a way to store hydrogen.

Magnesium reacts with an alkyl halide gives a Grignard reagent, which is a very useful tool for preparing
alcohols.
Magnesium salts are included in various foods, fertilizers (magnesium is a component of chlorophyll), and
microbe culture media.

Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (sulfite process).

Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood used in construction.

Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used for moth-proofing textiles.

Biological roles

Mechanism of action

The important interaction between phosphate and magnesium ions makes magnesium essential to the basic
nucleic acid chemistry of all cells of all known living organisms. More than 300 enzymes require
magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes using or synthesizing ATP and those that
use other nucleotides to synthesize DNA and RNA. The ATP molecule is normally found in a chelate with
a magnesium ion.[77]

Nutrition

Diet

Spices, nuts, cereals, cocoa and vegetables are good sources of

magnesium.[14] Green leafy vegetables such as spinach are also
rich in magnesium.[78]

Dietary recommendations

In the UK, the recommended daily values for magnesium are

300 mg for men and 270 mg for women.[79] In the U.S. the
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are 400 mg for men
ages 19–30 and 420 mg for older; for women 310 mg for ages 19–
30 and 320 mg for older.[80]

Supplementation

Numerous pharmaceutical preparations of magnesium and dietary

supplements are available. In two human trials magnesium oxide,
one of the most common forms in magnesium dietary supplements Examples of food sources of
because of its high magnesium content per weight, was less magnesium (clockwise from top left):
bioavailable than magnesium citrate, chloride, lactate or bran muffins, pumpkin seeds, barley,
aspartate.[81][82] buckwheat flour, low-fat vanilla
yogurt, trail mix, halibut steaks,
garbanzo beans, lima beans,
Metabolism soybeans, and spinach
An adult body has 22–26 grams of magnesium,[14][83] with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in
skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular.[14] Serum levels are typically 0.7–1.0 mmol/L or 1.8–2.4 mEq/L.
Serum magnesium levels may be normal even when intracellular magnesium is deficient. The mechanisms
for maintaining the magnesium level in the serum are varying gastrointestinal absorption and renal
excretion. Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellular potassium. Increased magnesium lowers
calcium[84] and can either prevent hypercalcemia or cause hypocalcemia depending on the initial level.[84]
Both low and high protein intake conditions inhibit magnesium absorption, as does the amount of
phosphate, phytate, and fat in the gut. Unabsorbed dietary magnesium is excreted in feces; absorbed
magnesium is excreted in urine and sweat.[85]

Detection in serum and plasma

Magnesium status may be assessed by measuring serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations
coupled with urinary and fecal magnesium content, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are more
accurate and practical.[86] A retention of 20% or more of the injected amount indicates deficiency.[87] As of
2004, no biomarker has been established for magnesium.[88]

Magnesium concentrations in plasma or serum may be monitored for efficacy and safety in those receiving
the drug therapeutically, to confirm the diagnosis in potential poisoning victims, or to assist in the forensic
investigation in a case of fatal overdose. The newborn children of mothers who received parenteral
magnesium sulfate during labor may exhibit toxicity with normal serum magnesium levels.[89]

Deficiency

Low plasma magnesium (hypomagnesemia) is common: it is found in 2.5–15% of the general

population.[90] From 2005 to 2006, 48 percent of the United States population consumed less magnesium
than recommended in the Dietary Reference Intake.[91] Other causes are increased renal or gastrointestinal
loss, an increased intracellular shift, and proton-pump inhibitor antacid therapy. Most are asymptomatic, but
symptoms referable to neuromuscular, cardiovascular, and metabolic dysfunction may occur.[90]
Alcoholism is often associated with magnesium deficiency. Chronically low serum magnesium levels are
associated with metabolic syndrome, diabetes mellitus type 2, fasciculation, and hypertension.[92]

Therapy
Intravenous magnesium is recommended by the ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for
Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac
Death for patients with ventricular arrhythmia associated with torsades de pointes who
present with long QT syndrome; and for the treatment of patients with digoxin induced
arrhythmias.[93]
Magnesium sulfate – intravenous – is used for the management of pre-eclampsia and
eclampsia.[94][95]
Hypomagnesemia, including that caused by alcoholism, is reversible by oral or parenteral
magnesium administration depending on the degree of deficiency.[96]
There is limited evidence that magnesium supplementation may play a role in the prevention
and treatment of migraine.[97]

Sorted by type of magnesium salt, other therapeutic applications include:

 Magnesium sulfate, as the heptahydrate called Epsom salts, is used as bath salts, a
laxative, and a highly soluble fertilizer.[98]
Magnesium hydroxide, suspended in water, is used in milk of magnesia antacids and
laxatives.
Magnesium chloride, oxide, gluconate, malate, orotate, glycinate, ascorbate and citrate are
all used as oral magnesium supplements.
Magnesium borate, magnesium salicylate, and magnesium sulfate are used as antiseptics.
Magnesium bromide is used as a mild sedative (this action is due to the bromide, not the
magnesium).
Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricating properties. In
pharmaceutical technology, it is used in pharmacological manufacture to prevent tablets
from sticking to the equipment while compressing the ingredients into tablet form.
Magnesium carbonate powder is used by athletes such as gymnasts, weightlifters, and
climbers to eliminate palm sweat, prevent sticking, and improve the grip on gymnastic
apparatus, lifting bars, and climbing rocks.

Overdose

Overdose from dietary sources alone is unlikely because excess magnesium in the blood is promptly filtered
by the kidneys,[90] and overdose is more likely in the presence of impaired renal function. In spite of this,
megadose therapy has caused death in a young child,[99] and severe hypermagnesemia in a woman[100]
and a young girl[101] who had healthy kidneys. The most common symptoms of overdose are nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhea; other symptoms include hypotension, confusion, slowed heart and respiratory rates,
deficiencies of other minerals, coma, cardiac arrhythmia, and death from cardiac arrest.[84]

Function in plants

Plants require magnesium to synthesize chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis.[102] Magnesium in the
center of the porphyrin ring in chlorophyll functions in a manner similar to the iron in the center of the
porphyrin ring in heme. Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf
veins,[103] especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by either applying epsom salts (which is rapidly
leached), or crushed dolomitic limestone, to the soil.

See also
List of countries by magnesium production
Magnesium oil

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Cited sources
Rumble, John R., ed. (2018). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (99th ed.). Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-1385-6163-2.

External links
Magnesium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/012.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Chemistry in its element podcast (http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/element.asp)
(MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Magnesium (http://www.rsc.or
g/images/CIIE_Magnesium_48kbps_tcm18-128524.mp3)
"Magnesium – a versatile and often overlooked element: new perspectives with a focus on
chronic kidney disease" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130609011345/http://ckj.oxfordjourn
als.org/content/5/Suppl_1.toc). Clin Kidney J. 5 (Suppl 1). February 2012. Archived from the
original (http://ckj.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/Suppl_1.toc) on 9 June 2013.

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