Bismuth

Bismuth is a chemical element; it has symbol Bi

and atomic number 83. It is a post-transition metal
Bismuth, 83Bi
and one of the pnictogens, with chemical properties
resembling its lighter group 15 siblings arsenic and
antimony. Elemental bismuth occurs naturally, and
its sulfide and oxide forms are important
commercial ores. The free element is 86% as dense
as lead. It is a brittle metal with a silvery-white
color when freshly produced. Surface oxidation
generally gives samples of the metal a somewhat
rosy cast. Further oxidation under heat can give Bismuth
bismuth a vividly iridescent appearance due to thin- Pronunciation /ˈbɪzməθ/ ​(BIZ-məth)
film interference. Bismuth is both the most
diamagnetic element and one of the least thermally Appearance lustrous brownish silver
conductive metals known.
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Bi)
Bismuth was long considered the element with the 208.980 40 ± 0.000 01
highest atomic mass whose nuclei do not 208.98 ± 0.01 (abridged)[1]
spontaneously decay. However, in 2003 it was
discovered to be extremely weakly radioactive. The Bismuth in the periodic table
metal's only primordial isotope, bismuth-209,
Sb
experiences alpha decay at such a rate that its half- ↑
life is more than the estimated age of the Bi
↓
universe.[6][7] Mc
lead ← bismuth → polonium
Bismuth metal has been known since ancient times.
Before modern analytical methods bismuth's Atomic number (Z) 83
metallurgical similarities to lead and tin often led it Group group 15 (pnictogens)
to be confused with those metals. The etymology of Period period 6
"bismuth" is uncertain. The name may come from
mid-sixteenth century Neo-Latin translations of the Block p-block
German words weiße Masse or Wismuth, meaning Electron [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3
'white mass', which were rendered as bisemutum or configuration
bisemutium.
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5
Physical properties
Main uses
Phase at STP solid
Bismuth compounds account for about half the Melting point 544.7 K ​(271.5 °C, ​
global production of bismuth. They are used in 520.7 °F)
cosmetics; pigments; and a few pharmaceuticals,
Boiling point 1837 K ​(1564 °C, ​2847 °F)
notably bismuth subsalicylate, used to treat
diarrhea.[7] Bismuth's unusual propensity to expand Density (near r.t.) 9.78 g/cm3
as it solidifies is responsible for some of its uses, as when liquid (at m.p.) 10.05 g/cm3
in the casting of printing type.[7] Bismuth has
Heat of fusion 11.30 kJ/mol
unusually low toxicity for a heavy metal.[7] As the
toxicity of lead and the cost of its environmental Heat of 179 kJ/mol
remediation became more apparent during the 20th vaporization
century, suitable bismuth alloys have gained Molar heat 25.52 J/(mol·K)
popularity as replacements for lead. Presently, capacity
around a third of global bismuth production is
dedicated to needs formerly met by lead. Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

History and etymology at T (K) 941 1041 1165 1325 1538 1835

Bismuth metal has been known since ancient times Atomic properties
and it was one of the first 10 metals to have been Oxidation states −3, −2, −1, 0,[2] +1, +2, +3,
discovered. The name bismuth dates to around +4, +5 (a mildly acidic oxide)
1665 and is of uncertain etymology. The name
possibly comes from obsolete German Bismuth, Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.02
Wismut, Wissmuth (early 16th century), perhaps Ionization energies 1st: 703 kJ/mol
related to Old High German hwiz ("white").[8] The 2nd: 1610 kJ/mol
Neo-Latin bisemutium (coined by Georgius
Agricola, who Latinized many German mining and 3rd: 2466 kJ/mol
technical words) is from the German Wismuth, itself (more)
perhaps from weiße Masse, meaning "white
Atomic radius empirical: 156 pm
mass".[9][10]
Covalent radius 148±4 pm
The element was confused in early times with tin Van der Waals 207 pm
and lead because of its resemblance to those radius
elements. Because bismuth has been known since
ancient times, no one person is credited with its
discovery. Agricola (1546) states that bismuth is a
distinct metal in a family of metals including tin and Spectral lines of bismuth
lead. This was based on observation of the metals Other properties
and their physical properties.[11]
Natural occurrence primordial
Miners in the age of alchemy also gave bismuth the Crystal structure ​rhombohedral[3]
name tectum argenti, or "silver being made" in the
sense of silver still in the process of being formed
within the Earth.[12][13][14] Speed of sound 1790 m/s (at 20 °C)
thin rod
Bismuth was also known to the Incas and used
Thermal expansion 13.4 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
(along with the usual copper and tin) in a special
bronze alloy for knives.[15] Thermal 7.97 W/(m⋅K)
conductivity
Beginning with Johann Heinrich Pott in 1738,[16] Electrical 1.29 µΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and Torbern Olof Bergman,
resistivity
the distinctness of lead and bismuth became clear,
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Molar magnetic −280.1 × 10−6 cm3/mol[4]
susceptibility
Young's modulus 32 GPa
and Claude François Geoffroy demonstrated in Shear modulus 12 GPa
1753 that this metal is distinct from lead and
Bulk modulus 31 GPa
tin.[13][17][18]
Poisson ratio 0.33

Characteristics Mohs hardness 2.25

Brinell hardness 70–95 MPa
CAS Number 7440-69-9
Physical characteristics
History
Bismuth is a brittle metal with a dark, silver-pink Discovery Arabic alchemists
hue, often with an iridescent oxide tarnish showing (before AD 1000)
many colors from yellow to blue. The spiral, stair- Isotopes of bismuth
stepped structure of bismuth crystals is the result of
a higher growth rate around the outside edges than Main isotopes[5] Decay
on the inside edges. The variations in the thickness
of the oxide layer that forms on the surface of the abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
crystal cause different wavelengths of light to 207
Bi synth 31.55 y β+ 207
Pb
interfere upon reflection, thus displaying a rainbow
of colors. When burned in oxygen, bismuth burns 208
Bi synth 3.68 × 105 y β+ 208
Pb
with a blue flame and its oxide forms yellow
209
fumes.[17] Its toxicity is much lower than that of its Bi 100% 2.01 × 1019 y α 205
Tl
neighbors in the periodic table, such as lead and 210
Bi trace 5.012 d β− 210
Po
antimony.[19]
206
α Tl
No other metal is verified to be more naturally
diamagnetic than bismuth.[17][20] 210m
Bi synth 3.04 × 106 y IT 210
Bi
(Superdiamagnetism is a different physical 206
phenomenon.) Of any metal, it has one of the α Tl

Left: A bismuth hopper crystal
exhibiting the stairstep crystal
structure and iridescent colors, which
are produced by interference of light
within the oxide film on its surface.
Right: a 1 cm3 cube of unoxidised
bismuth metal
lowest
values of thermal conductivity (after
manganese, and occasionally neptunium and
plutonium) and the highest Hall
coefficient. [21] It has a high electrical
resistivity. [17] When deposited in sufficiently
thin layers on a substrate, bismuth is a
semiconductor, despite being a post-transition Alchemical
metal. [22] Elemental bismuth is denser in the symbol used by
liquid phase than the solid, a characteristic it Torbern Bergman
shares with germanium, silicon, gallium, and (1775)
water. [23] Bismuth expands 3.32% on
solidification; therefore, it was long a
component of low-melting typesetting alloys, where it compensated
for the contraction of the other alloying components[17][24][25][26]
to form almost isostatic bismuth-lead eutectic alloys.

Though virtually unseen in nature, high-purity bismuth can form

distinctive, colorful hopper crystals. It is relatively nontoxic and has a low melting point just above 271 °C,
so crystals may be grown using a household stove, although the resulting crystals will tend to be of lower
quality than lab-grown crystals.[27]

Pressure-temperature phase diagram
of bismuth. TC refers to the
superconducting transition
temperature
At ambient conditions, bismuth shares the same layered structure as
the metallic forms of arsenic and antimony,[28] crystallizing in the
rhombohedral lattice[29] (Pearson symbol hR6, space group R3m
No. 166) of the trigonal crystal system.[3] When compressed at
room temperature, this Bi-I structure changes first to the monoclinic
Bi-II at 2.55 GPa, then to the tetragonal Bi-III at 2.7 GPa, and
finally to the body-centered cubic Bi-V at 7.7 GPa. The
corresponding transitions can be monitored via changes in electrical
conductivity; they are rather reproducible and abrupt and are
therefore used for calibration of high-pressure equipment.[30][31]
Chemical characteristics

Bismuth is stable to both dry and moist air at ordinary temperatures.

When red-hot, it reacts with water to make bismuth(III) oxide.[32]

2 Bi + 3 H2O → Bi2O3 + 3 H2

It reacts with fluorine to make bismuth(V) fluoride at 500 °C or bismuth(III) fluoride at lower temperatures
(typically from Bi melts); with other halogens it yields only bismuth(III) halides.[33][34][35] The trihalides
are corrosive and easily react with moisture, forming oxyhalides with the formula BiOX.[36]

4 Bi + 6 X2 → 4 BiX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I)

4 BiX3 + 2 O2 → 4 BiOX + 4 X2

Bismuth dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make bismuth(III) sulfate and sulfur dioxide.[32]

6 H2SO4 + 2 Bi → 6 H2O + Bi2(SO4)3 + 3 SO2

It reacts with nitric acid to make bismuth(III) nitrate (which decomposes into nitrogen dioxide when
heated[37]).[38]

Bi + 6 HNO3 → 3 H2O + 3 NO2 + Bi(NO3)3

It also dissolves in hydrochloric acid, but only with oxygen present.[32]

4 Bi + 3 O2 + 12 HCl → 4 BiCl3 + 6 H2O

Isotopes

The only primordial isotope of bismuth, bismuth-209, was traditionally regarded as the heaviest stable
isotope, but it had long been suspected[39] to be unstable on theoretical grounds. This was finally
demonstrated in 2003, when researchers at the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale in Orsay, France, measured
209
the alpha emission half-life of Bi to be 2.01 × 1019 years (3 Bq/Mg),[40][41] over a billion times longer
than the current estimated age of the universe.[7] Owing to its extraordinarily long half-life, for all presently
known medical and industrial applications, bismuth can be treated as if it is stable and nonradioactive. The
radioactivity is of academic interest because bismuth is one of a few elements whose radioactivity was
suspected and theoretically predicted before being detected in the laboratory.[7] Bismuth has the longest
known alpha decay half-life, although tellurium-128 has a double beta decay half-life of over
2.2 × 1024 years.[41] Bismuth's extremely long half-life means that less than approximately one-billionth of
the bismuth present at the formation of the planet Earth would have decayed into thallium since then.

Several isotopes of bismuth with short half-lives occur within the radioactive disintegration chains of
actinium, radium, and thorium, and more have been synthesized experimentally. Bismuth-213 is also found
on the decay chain of neptunium-237 and uranium-233.[42][43]

Commercially, the radioactive isotope bismuth-213 can be produced by bombarding radium with
bremsstrahlung photons from a linear particle accelerator. In 1997, an antibody conjugate with bismuth-
213, which has a 45-minute half-life and decays with the emission of an alpha particle, was used to treat
patients with leukemia. This isotope has also been tried in cancer treatment, for example, in the targeted
alpha therapy (TAT) program.[44][45]

Chemical compounds
Bismuth forms trivalent and pentavalent compounds, the trivalent
ones being more common. Many of its chemical properties are
similar to those of arsenic and antimony, although they are less
toxic than derivatives of those lighter elements.[19]

Oxides and sulfides

At elevated temperatures, the vapors of the metal combine rapidly

with oxygen, forming the yellow trioxide, Bi2 O3 .[23][46] When Bismuth(III) oxide powder
molten, at temperatures above 710 °C, this oxide corrodes any
metal oxide and even platinum.[35] On reaction with a base, it
forms two series of oxyanions: BiO−2, which is polymeric and forms linear chains, and BiO3− 3 . The anion in
24− [47]
Li3 BiO3 is a cubic octameric anion, Bi8 O24 , whereas the anion in Na3 BiO3 is tetrameric.

The dark red bismuth(V) oxide, Bi2 O5 , is unstable, liberating O2 gas upon heating.[48] The compound
NaBiO3 is a strong oxidising agent.[49]

Bismuth sulfide, Bi2 S3 , occurs naturally in bismuth ores.[50] It is also produced by the combination of
molten bismuth and sulfur.[34]

Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl, see figure at right) and bismuth oxynitrate (BiONO3 ) stoichiometrically
appear as simple anionic salts of the bismuthyl(III) cation (BiO+) which commonly occurs in aqueous
bismuth compounds. However, in the case of BiOCl, the salt crystal forms in a structure of alternating
plates of Bi, O, and Cl atoms, with each oxygen coordinating with four bismuth atoms in the adjacent
plane. This mineral compound is used as a pigment and cosmetic (see below).[51]

Bismuthine and bismuthides

Unlike the lighter pnictogens nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic, but similar to antimony, bismuth does not
form a stable hydride. Bismuth hydride, bismuthine (BiH3 ), is an endothermic compound that
spontaneously decomposes at room temperature. It is stable only below −60 °C.[47] Bismuthides are
intermetallic compounds between bismuth and other metals,[52] such as neodymium.[53]
In 2014 researchers discovered that sodium bismuthide can exist as
a form of matter called a “three-dimensional topological Dirac
semi-metal” (3DTDS) that possess 3D Dirac fermions in bulk. It is
a natural, three-dimensional counterpart to graphene with similar
electron mobility and velocity. Graphene and topological insulators
(such as those in 3DTDS) are both crystalline materials that are
electrically insulating inside but conducting on the surface,
allowing them to function as transistors and other electronic
devices. While sodium bismuthide (Na3 Bi) is too unstable to be
used in devices without packaging, it can demonstrate potential
applications of 3DTDS systems, which offer distinct efficiency and
Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl)
fabrication advantages over planar graphene in semiconductor and
structure (mineral bismoclite).
spintronics applications.[54][55] Bismuth atoms are shown as grey,
oxygen red, chlorine green.

Halides

The halides of bismuth in low oxidation states have been shown to adopt unusual structures. What was
5+
originally thought to be bismuth(I) chloride, BiCl, turns out to be a complex compound consisting of Bi9
2− 2− 5+
cations and BiCl5 and Bi2 Cl8 anions.[47][56] The Bi9 cation has a distorted tricapped trigonal prismatic
molecular geometry and is also found in Bi10 Hf3 Cl18 , which is prepared by reducing a mixture of
hafnium(IV) chloride and bismuth chloride with elemental bismuth, having the structure
+ 2+
[Bi ] [Bi5+ 2− [47]: 50
9 ] [HfCl6 ]3 . Other polyatomic bismuth cations are also known, such as Bi8 , found in
[56]
Bi8 (AlCl4 )2 . Bismuth also forms a low-valence bromide with the same structure as BiCl. There is a true
monoiodide, BiI, which contains chains of Bi4 I4 units. BiI decomposes upon heating to the triiodide, BiI3 ,
and elemental bismuth. A monobromide of the same structure also exists.[47] In oxidation state +3, bismuth
forms trihalides with all of the halogens: BiF3 , BiCl3 , BiBr3 , and BiI3 . All of these except BiF3 are
hydrolyzed by water.[47]

Bismuth(III) chloride reacts with hydrogen chloride in ether solution to produce the acid HBiCl4 .[32]

The oxidation state +5 is less frequently encountered. One such compound is BiF5 , a powerful oxidizing
and fluorinating agent. It is also a strong fluoride acceptor, reacting with xenon tetrafluoride to form the
XeF+3 cation:[32]

BiF5 + XeF4 → XeF+3 BiF−6

Aqueous species
3+ 3+
In aqueous solution, the Bi ion is solvated to form the aqua ion Bi(H2 O)8 in strongly acidic
conditions.[57] At pH > 0 polynuclear species exist, the most important of which is believed to be the
6+
octahedral complex [Bi6 O4 (OH)4 ] .[58]

Occurrence and production

In the Earth's crust, bismuth is about twice as abundant as gold. The most important ores of bismuth are
bismuthinite and bismite.[17] Native bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia, and China.[59][60]
 World bismuth production,
2022, in tonnes

Country Refining[61]
China 16,000

Laos 2,000

South Korea 950

Bismite mineral
Japan 480

Kazakhstan 220

Other 350
Total 20,000

According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), 10,200

tonnes of bismuth were produced worldwide by mining and 17,100
tonnes by refining in 2016. Since then, USGS does not provide Chunk of a broken bismuth ingot
mining data for bismuth, considering them unreliable. Globally,
bismuth is mostly produced by refining, as a byproduct of
extraction of other metals such as lead, copper, tin, molybdenum and tungsten, though the refining-to-
mining ratio depends on the country.[62][63][64][65]

Bismuth travels in crude lead bullion (which can contain up to 10% bismuth) through several stages of
refining, until it is removed by the Kroll-Betterton process which separates the impurities as slag, or the
electrolytic Betts process. Bismuth will behave similarly with another of its major metals, copper.[63] The
raw bismuth metal from both processes contains still considerable amounts of other metals, foremost lead.
By reacting the molten mixture with chlorine gas the metals are converted to their chlorides while bismuth
remains unchanged. Impurities can also be removed by various other methods for example with fluxes and
treatments yielding high-purity bismuth metal (over 99% Bi).[66]

Price

The price for pure bismuth metal has been relatively

stable through most of the 20th century, except for a
spike in the 1970s. Bismuth has always been produced
mainly as a byproduct of lead refining, and thus the
price usually reflected the cost of recovery and the
balance between production and demand.[67]

Prior to World War II, demand for bismuth was small

and mainly pharmaceutical — bismuth compounds were
used to treat such conditions as digestive disorders,
sexually transmitted diseases and burns. Minor amounts World mine production and annual averages of
of bismuth metal were consumed in fusible alloys for bismuth price (New York, not adjusted for
fire sprinkler systems and fuse wire. During World War inflation).[67]
II bismuth was considered a strategic material, used for
solders, fusible alloys, medications and atomic research.
To stabilize the market, the producers set the price at $1.25 per pound ($2.75 /kg) during the war and at
$2.25 per pound ($4.96 /kg) from 1950 until 1964.[67]
In the early 1970s, the price rose rapidly as a result of increasing demand for bismuth as a metallurgical
additive to aluminium, iron and steel. This was followed by a decline owing to increased world production,
stabilized consumption, and the recessions of 1980 and 1981–1982. In 1984, the price began to climb as
consumption increased worldwide, especially in the United States and Japan. In the early 1990s, research
began on the evaluation of bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in ceramic glazes, fishing sinkers,
food-processing equipment, free-machining brasses for plumbing applications, lubricating greases, and shot
for waterfowl hunting.[68] Growth in these areas remained slow during the middle 1990s, in spite of the
backing of lead replacement by the United States federal government, but intensified around 2005. This
resulted in a rapid and continuing increase in price.[67]

Recycling

Most bismuth is produced as a byproduct of other metal-extraction processes including the smelting of lead,
and also of tungsten and copper. Its sustainability is dependent on increased recycling, which is
problematic.[69]

It was once believed that bismuth could be practically recycled from the soldered joints in electronic
equipment. Recent efficiencies in solder application in electronics mean there is substantially less solder
deposited, and thus less to recycle. While recovering the silver from silver-bearing solder may remain
economic, recovering bismuth is substantially less so.[70]

Dispersed bismuth is used in certain stomach medicines (bismuth subsalicylate), paints (bismuth vanadate),
pearlescent cosmetics (bismuth oxychloride), and bismuth-containing bullets. Recycling bismuth from these
uses is impractical.[66]

Applications
Bismuth has few commercial applications, and those applications
that use it generally require small quantities relative to other raw
materials. In the United States, for example, 733 tonnes of bismuth
were consumed in 2016, of which 70% went into chemicals
(including pharmaceuticals, pigments, and cosmetics) and 11% into
bismuth alloys.[66]

In the early 1990s, researchers began to evaluate bismuth as a

nontoxic replacement for lead in various applications.[66]

Medicines

Bismuth is an ingredient in some pharmaceuticals,[7] although the

use of some of these substances is declining.[51]

Bismuth subsalicylate is used to treat diarrhea;[7] it is the

active ingredient in such "pink bismuth" preparations as
Pepto-Bismol, as well as the 2004 reformulation of
Kaopectate. It is also used to treat some other gastro- 18th-century engraving of bismuth
intestinal diseases like shigellosis[71] and cadmium processing. During this era, bismuth
poisoning.[7] The mechanism of action of this substance was used to treat some digestive
is still not well documented, although an oligodynamic complaints.
effect (toxic effect of small doses of heavy metal ions on
 microbes) may be involved in at least some cases. Salicylic acid from hydrolysis of the
compound is antimicrobial for toxogenic E. coli, an important pathogen in traveler's
diarrhea.[72]
A combination of bismuth subsalicylate and bismuth subcitrate is used to treat the bacteria
causing peptic ulcers.[73][74]
Bibrocathol is an organic bismuth-containing compound used to treat eye infections.[75]
Bismuth subgallate, the active ingredient in Devrom, is used as an internal deodorant to treat
malodor from flatulence and feces.[76][77]
Bismuth compounds (including sodium bismuth tartrate) were formerly used to treat
syphilis.[78][79] Arsenic combined with either bismuth or mercury was a mainstay of syphilis
treatment from the 1920s until the advent of penicillin in 1943.[80]
"Milk of bismuth" (an aqueous suspension of bismuth hydroxide and bismuth subcarbonate)
was marketed as an alimentary cure-all in the early 20th century, and has been used to treat
gastrointestinal disorders.[81]
Bismuth subnitrate (Bi5O(OH)9(NO3)4) and bismuth subcarbonate (Bi2O2(CO3)) are also
used in medicine.[17]

Cosmetics and pigments

Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl) is sometimes used in cosmetics, as a pigment in paint for eye shadows, hair
sprays and nail polishes.[7][51][82][83] This compound is found as the mineral bismoclite and in crystal form
contains layers of atoms (see figure above) that refract light chromatically, resulting in an iridescent
appearance similar to nacre of pearl. It was used as a cosmetic in ancient Egypt and in many places since.
Bismuth white (also "Spanish white") can refer to either bismuth oxychloride or bismuth oxynitrate
(BiONO3 ), when used as a white pigment.[84] Bismuth vanadate is used as a light-stable non-reactive paint
pigment (particularly for artists' paints), often as a replacement for the more toxic cadmium sulfide yellow
and orange-yellow pigments. The most common variety in artists' paints is a lemon yellow, visually
indistinguishable from its cadmium-containing alternative.[85]

Metal and alloys

Bismuth is used in metal alloys with other metals such as iron. These alloys are used in automatic sprinkler
systems for fires. It forms the largest part (50%) of Rose's metal, a fusible alloy, which also contains 25–
28% lead and 22–25% tin. It was also used to make bismuth bronze which was used in the Bronze Age,
having been found in Inca knives at Machu Picchu.[86]

Lead replacement

The density difference between lead (11.32 g/cm3 ) and bismuth (9.78 g/cm3 ) is small enough that for many
ballistics and weighting applications, bismuth can substitute for lead. For example, it can replace lead as a
dense material in fishing sinkers. It has been used as a replacement for lead in shot, bullets and less-lethal
riot gun ammunition. The Netherlands, Denmark, England, Wales, the United States, and many other
countries now prohibit the use of lead shot for the hunting of wetland birds, as many birds are prone to lead
poisoning owing to mistaken ingestion of lead (instead of small stones and grit) to aid digestion, or even
prohibit the use of lead for all hunting, such as in the Netherlands. Bismuth-tin alloy shot is one alternative
that provides similar ballistic performance to lead.[66]
Bismuth, as a dense element of high atomic weight, is used in bismuth-impregnated latex shields to shield
from X-ray in medical examinations, such as CTs, mostly as it is considered non-toxic.[87]

The European Union's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) for reduction of lead has
broadened bismuth's use in electronics as a component of low-melting point solders, as a replacement for
traditional tin-lead solders.[66] Its low toxicity will be especially important for solders to be used in food
processing equipment and copper water pipes, although it can also be used in other applications including
those in the automobile industry, in the European Union, for example.[88]

Bismuth has been evaluated as a replacement for lead in free-machining brasses for plumbing
applications,[89] although it does not equal the performance of leaded steels.[88]

Other metal uses and specialty alloys

Many bismuth alloys have low melting points and are found in specialty applications such as solders. Many
automatic sprinklers, electric fuses, and safety devices in fire detection and suppression systems contain the
eutectic In19.1-Cd5.3-Pb22.6-Sn8.3-Bi44.7 alloy that melts at 47 °C (117 °F)[17] This is a convenient
temperature since it is unlikely to be exceeded in normal living conditions. Low-melting alloys, such as Bi-
Cd-Pb-Sn alloy which melts at 70 °C, are also used in automotive and aviation industries. Before
deforming a thin-walled metal part, it is filled with a melt or covered with a thin layer of the alloy to reduce
the chance of breaking. Then the alloy is removed by submerging the part in boiling water.[90]

Bismuth is used to make free-machining steels and free-machining aluminium alloys for precision
machining properties. It has similar effect to lead and improves the chip breaking during machining. The
shrinking on solidification in lead and the expansion of bismuth compensate each other and therefore lead
and bismuth are often used in similar quantities.[91][92] Similarly, alloys containing comparable parts of
bismuth and lead exhibit a very small change (on the order 0.01%) upon melting, solidification or aging.
Such alloys are used in high-precision casting, e.g. in dentistry, to create models and molds.[90] Bismuth is
also used as an alloying agent in production of malleable irons[66] and as a thermocouple material.[17]

Bismuth is also used in aluminium-silicon cast alloys in order to refine silicon morphology. However, it
indicated a poisoning effect on modification of strontium.[93][94] Some bismuth alloys, such as Bi35-Pb37-
Sn25, are combined with non-sticking materials such as mica, glass and enamels because they easily wet
them allowing to make joints to other parts. Addition of bismuth to caesium enhances the quantum yield of
caesium cathodes.[51] Sintering of bismuth and manganese powders at 300 °C produces a permanent
magnet and magnetostrictive material, which is used in ultrasonic generators and receivers working in the
10–100 kHz range and in magnetic and holographic memory devices.[95]

Other uses as compounds

Bismuth is included in BSCCO (bismuth strontium
calcium copper oxide) which is a group of similar
superconducting compounds discovered in 1988 that
exhibit the highest superconducting transition
temperatures.[96]
Bismuth telluride is a semiconductor and an excellent
thermoelectric material.[51][97] Bi2Te3 diodes are used in
mobile refrigerators, CPU coolers, and as detectors in
infrared spectrophotometers.[51]
Bismuth vanadate, a yellow pigment
 Bismuth oxide, in its delta form, is a solid electrolyte for oxygen. This form normally breaks
down below a high-temperature threshold, but can be electrodeposited well below this
temperature in a highly alkaline solution.[98]
Bismuth germanate is a scintillator, widely used in X-ray and gamma ray detectors.[99]
Bismuth vanadate is an opaque yellow pigment used by some artists' oil, acrylic, and
watercolor paint companies, primarily as a replacement for the more toxic cadmium sulfide
yellows in the greenish-yellow (lemon) to orange-toned yellow range. It performs practically
identically to the cadmium pigments, such as in terms of resistance to degradation from UV
exposure, opacity, tinting strength, and lack of reactivity when mixed with other pigments.
The most commonly-used variety by artists' paint makers is lemon in color. In addition to
being a replacement for several cadmium yellows, it also serves as a non-toxic visual
replacement for the older chromate pigments made with zinc, lead, and strontium. If a green
pigment and barium sulfate (for increased transparency) are added it can also serve as a
replacement for barium chromate, which possesses a more greenish cast than the others. In
comparison with lead chromate, it does not blacken due to hydrogen sulfide in the air (a
process accelerated by UV exposure) and possesses a particularly brighter color than them,
especially the lemon, which is the most translucent, dull, and fastest to blacken due to the
higher percentage of lead sulfate required to produce that shade. It is also used, on a limited
basis due to its cost, as a vehicle paint pigment.[100][101]
A catalyst for making acrylic fibers.[17]
As an electrocatalyst in the conversion of CO2 to CO.[102]
Ingredient in lubricating greases.[103]
In crackling microstars (dragon's eggs) in pyrotechnics, as the oxide, subcarbonate or
subnitrate.[104][105]
As catalyst for the fluorination of arylboronic pinacol esters through a Bi(III)/Bi(V) catalytic
cycle, mimicking transition metals in electrophilic fluorination.[106]

Toxicology and ecotoxicology

See also bismuthia, a rare dermatological condition that results from the prolonged use of
bismuth.

Scientific literature indicates that some of the compounds of bismuth are less toxic to humans via ingestion
than other heavy metals (lead, arsenic, antimony, etc.)[7] presumably due to the comparatively low
solubility of bismuth salts.[107] Its biological half-life for whole-body retention is reported to be 5 days but
it can remain in the kidney for years in people treated with bismuth compounds.[108]

Bismuth poisoning can occur and has according to some reports been common in relatively recent
times.[107][109] As with lead, bismuth poisoning can result in the formation of a black deposit on the
gingiva, known as a bismuth line.[110][111][112] Poisoning may be treated with dimercaprol; however,
evidence for benefit is unclear.[113][114]

Bismuth's environmental impacts are not well known; it may be less likely to bioaccumulate than some
other heavy metals, and this is an area of active research.[115][116]

See also
Lead-bismuth eutectic
List of countries by bismuth production
 Bismuth minerals
Patterns in nature

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External links
Laboratory growth of large crystals of Bismuth by Jan Kihle Crystal Pulling Laboratories,
Norway
Bismuth (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/083.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay (http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/20
03/apr/23/bismuth-breaks-half-life-record-for-alpha-decay)
Bismuth Crystals – Instructions & Pictures (http://www.amazingrust.com/Experiments/how_t
o/Bismuth_Crystals.html)

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