MARY JOY ABARICO CE-1R
Allotropic forms of carbon
Diamond is one of the best known allotropes of
carbon, whose hardness and high dispersion of light
make it useful for industrial applications and jewelry.
Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral, which
makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold
polish and luster extremely well. No known naturally
occurring substance can scratch, let alone cut, a
diamond.
Graphite (named by Abraham Gottlob
Werner in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν: "to
draw/write", for its use in pencils) is one of the most
common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond,
graphite is an electrical conductor, and can be used,
for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an
electrical arc lamp. Graphite holds the distinction of
being the most stable form of carbon under standard
conditions. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry
as the standard state for defining the heat of
formation of carbon compounds.
Amorphous carbon is the name used for carbon that
does not have any crystalline structure. As with
all glassy materials, some short-range order can be
observed, but there is no long-range pattern of atomic
positions.While entirely amorphous carbon can be
made, natural amorphous carbon (such as soot)
actually contains microscopic crystals
of graphite, sometimes diamond. On the macroscopic
scale, amorphous carbon has no definite structure as it
conisists of small irregular crystals, but on the Nano
microscopic scale, we can see it is made of regularly
arranged carbon atoms.
Buckminsterfullerenes, or usually
just fullerenes for short, were discovered in 1985 by a
team of scientists from Rice University and
the University of Sussex, three of whom were
awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are
named for the resemblance of their allotropic structure
to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist and
architect Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller.
Fullerenes are molecules of varying sizes composed
entirely of carbon, which take the form of a hollow
sphere, ellipsoid, or tube.
Aggregated diamond nanorods, or ADNRs, are
an allotrope of carbon believed to be the least
compressible material known to humankind, as
measured by its isothermal bulk modulus; aggregated
diamond nanorods have a modulus of
491 gigapascals (GPa), while a
conventional diamond has a modulus of 442 GPa.
ADNRs are also 0.3% denser than regular diamond.
The ADNR material is also harder than type IIa
diamond and ultrahard fullerite.
Glassy carbon is a class of non-
graphitizing carbon which is widely used as an
electrode material in electrochemistry, as well as for
high temperature crucibles and as a component of
some prosthetic devices. It was first produced by
workers at the laboratories of The General Electric
Company, UK, in the early 1960s, using cellulose as
the starting material. A short time later, Japanese
workers produced a similar material from phenolic
resin. The preparation of glassy carbon involves
subjecting the organic precursors to a series of heat
treatments at temperatures up to 3000oC. Unlike many
non-graphitizing carbons, they are impermeable to
gases and are chemically extremely inert, especially
those which have been prepared at very high
temperatures.
Carbon nanofoam is the fifth known allotrope of
carbon discovered in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-
workers at the Australian National
University in Canberra. It consists of a low-density
cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a
loose three-dimensional web. Each cluster is about 6
nanometers wide and consists of about 4000
carbon atoms linked in graphite-like sheets that are
given negative curvature by the inclusion
of heptagons among the regular hexagonal pattern.
This is the opposite of what happens in the case
of buckminsterfullerenes, in which carbon sheets are
given positive curvature by the inclusion of pentagons.
Lonsdaleite is a hexagonal allotrope of the carbon
allotrope diamond, believed to form
when meteoric graphite falls to Earth. The great heat
and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into
diamond, but retains graphite's
hexagonal crystallattice. Lonsdaleite was first
identified from the Canyon Diablo
meteorite at Barringer Crater (also known as Meteor
Crater) in Arizona. It was first discovered in 1967.
Lonsdaleite occurs as microscopic crystals associated
with diamond in the Canyon Diablo meteorite; Kenna
meteorite, New Mexico; and Allan Hills (ALH)
77283, Victoria Land, Antarctica meteorite. It has also
been reported from the Tunguska impact site, Russia.
2. How are coal formed?
Step 1: plants decay

Step 2: peat is formed

Step 3: peat changes to lignite (soft brown coal made from peat)

Step 4: bituminous coal is formed (black and brittle and very polluting)

Step 5: anthracite coal is formed (highest amount of carbon and clean burning)

3. How are Petroleum fuel form?

Step 1: Diagenesis forms Kerogen

Diagenesis is a process of compaction under mild conditions of temperature and pressure. When organic
aquatic sediments (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) are deposited, they are very saturated with water and
rich in minerals. Through chemical reaction, compaction, and microbial action during burial, water is
forced out and proteins and carbohydrates break down to form new structures that comprise a waxy
material known as “kerogen” and a black tar like substance called “bitumen”. All of this occurs within the
first several hundred meters of burial.

Step 2: Catagenesis (or “cracking”) turns kerogen into petroleum and natural gas

As temperatures and pressures increase (deeper burial) the process of catagenesis begins, which is the
thermal degradation of kerogen to form hydrocarbon chains. Importantly, the process of catagenesis is
catalyzed by the minerals that are deposited and persist through marine diagenesis. The conditions of
catagenesis determine the product, such that higher temperature and pressure lead to more complete
“cracking” of the kerogen and progressively lighter and smaller hydrocarbons. Petroleum formation, then,
requires a specific window of conditions; too hot and the product will favor natural gas (small
hydrocarbons), but too cold and the plankton will remain trapped as kerogen.
DONNALD MAITEM CE-1R

Allotropic formS of carbon

Lonsdaleite is a hexagonal allotrope of the carbon allotrope diamond, believed to

form when meteoric graphite falls to Earth. The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into
diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal crystallattice. Lonsdaleite was first identified from the Canyon Diablo
meteorite at Barringer Crater (also known as Meteor Crater) in Arizona. It was first discovered in 1967. Lonsdaleite
occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond in the Canyon Diablo meteorite; Kenna meteorite, New
Mexico; and Allan Hills (ALH) 77283, Victoria Land, Antarctica meteorite. It has also been reported from
the Tunguska impact site, Russia.

Carbon nanofoam is the fifth known allotrope of carbon discovered

in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the Australian National University in Canberra. It consists of a low-
density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web. Each cluster is about 6
nanometers wide and consists of about 4000 carbon atoms linked in graphite-like sheets that are given negative
curvature by the inclusion of heptagons among the regular hexagonal pattern. This is the opposite of what happens in
the case of buckminsterfullerenes, in which carbon sheets are given positive curvature by the inclusion of pentagons.

Glassy carbon is a class of non-graphitizing carbon which is widely used as an

electrode material in electrochemistry, as well as for high temperature crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic
devices. It was first produced by workers at the laboratories of The General Electric Company, UK, in the early 1960s,
using cellulose as the starting material. A short time later, Japanese workers produced a similar material from phenolic
resin. The preparation of glassy carbon involves subjecting the organic precursors to a series of heat treatments at
temperatures up to 3000oC. Unlike many non-graphitizing carbons, they are impermeable to gases and are chemically
extremely inert, especially those which have been prepared at very high temperatures.

Aggregated diamond nanorods, or ADNRs, are an allotrope of carbon believed to be

the least compressible material known to humankind, as measured by its isothermal bulk modulus; aggregated
diamond nanorods have a modulus of 491 gigapascals (GPa), while a conventional diamond has a modulus of 442
GPa. ADNRs are also 0.3% denser than regular diamond. The ADNR material is also harder than type IIa diamond
and ultrahard fullerite.

Amorphous carbon is the name used for carbon that does not have
any crystalline structure. As with all glassy materials, some short-range order can be observed, but there is no long-
range pattern of atomic positions.While entirely amorphous carbon can be made, natural amorphous carbon (such as
soot) actually contains microscopic crystals of graphite, [1] sometimes diamond [2]. On the macroscopic scale,
amorphous carbon has no definite structure as it conisists of small irregular cystals, but on the nanomicroscopic scale,
we can see it is made of regularly arranged carbon atoms.

Graphite (named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν:
"to draw/write", for its use in pencils) is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is
an electrical conductor, and can be used, for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an electrical arc lamp.
Graphite holds the distinction of being the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Therefore, it is
used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds.

Buckminsterfullerenes, or usually just fullerenes for short, were discovered in 1985 by

a team of scientists from Rice University and the University of Sussex, three of whom were awarded the 1996
Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are named for the resemblance of their allotropic structure to the geodesic structures
devised by the scientist and architect Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller. Fullerenes are molecules of varying sizes
composed entirely of carbon, which take the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube.

Diamond is one of the best known allotropes of carbon, whose hardness and high
dispersion of light make it useful for industrial applications and jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known
natural mineral, which makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No known
naturally occurring substance can scratch, let alone cut, a diamond.

2. How are coal formed?

Step 1: plants decay

Step 2: peat is formed

Step 3: peat changes to lignite (soft brown coal made from peat)

Step 4: bituminous coal is formed (black and brittle and very polluting)

Step 5: anthracite coal is formed (highest amount of carbon and clean

burning)

3. How are petroleum fuel form?

Step 1: Diagenesis forms Kerogen

Diagenesis is a process of compaction under mild conditions of temperature and pressure. When organic
aquatic sediments (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) are deposited, they are very saturated with water and
rich in minerals. Through chemical reaction, compaction, and microbial action during burial, water is
forced out and proteins and carbohydrates break down to form new structures that comprise a waxy
material known as “kerogen” and a black tar like substance called “bitumen”. All of this occurs within the
first several hundred meters of burial.

Step 2: Catagenesis (or “cracking”) turns kerogen into petroleum and natural gas

As temperatures and pressures increase (deeper burial) the process of catagenesis begins, which is the
thermal degradation of kerogen to form hydrocarbon chains. Importantly, the process of catagenesis is
catalyzed by the minerals that are deposited and persist through marine diagenesis. The conditions of
catagenesis determine the product, such that higher temperature and pressure lead to more complete
“cracking” of the kerogen and progressively lighter and smaller hydrocarbons. Petroleum formation, then,
requires a specific window of conditions; too hot and the product will favor natural gas (small
hydrocarbons), but too cold and the plankton will remain trapped as kero
JUSTINE OLOR CE-1R

Allotropic form of carbon

Graphite (named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek

γράφειν: "to draw/write", for its use in pencils) is one of the most common
allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor,
and can be used, for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an
electrical arc lamp. Graphite holds the distinction of being the most stable
form of carbon under standard conditions. Therefore, it is used in
thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of
formation of carbon compounds.

Diamond is one of the best known allotropes of carbon, whose hardness

and high dispersion of light make it useful for industrial applications and
jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral, which makes it an
excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No
known naturally occurring substance can scratch, let alone cut, a diamond.

Buckminsterfullerenes, or usually just fullerenes for short, were

discovered in 1985 by a team of scientists from Rice University and
the University of Sussex, three of whom were awarded the 1996 Nobel
Prize in Chemistry. They are named for the resemblance of their alliotropic
structure to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist and
architect Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller. Fullerenes are molecules.

Amorphous carbon is the name used for carbon that does not have
any crystalline structure. As with all glassy materials, some short-range
order can be observed, but there is no long-range pattern of atomic
positions.While entirely amorphous carbon can be made, natural amorphous
carbon (such as soot) actually contains microscopic crystals
of graphite, [1] sometimes diamond [2]. On the macroscopic scale,
amorphous carbon has no definite structure as it conisists of small irregular
cystals, but on the nanomicroscopic scale, we can see it is made of regularly
arranged carbon atoms.
Glassy carbon is a class of non-graphitizing carbon which is widely used
as an electrode material in electrochemistry, as well as for high temperature
crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic devices. It was first
produced by workers at the laboratories of The General Electric
Company, UK, in the early 1960s, using cellulose as the starting material.
A short time later, Japanese workers produced a similar material
from phenolic resin. The preparation of glassy carbon involves subjecting
the organic precursors to a series of heat treatments at temperatures up to
3000oC. Unlike many non-graphitizing carbons, they are impermeable to
gases and are chemically extremely inert, especially those which have been
prepared at very high temperatures.

Aggregated diamond nanorods, or ADNRs, are

an allotrope of carbon believed to be the least compressible material known
to humankind, as measured by its isothermal bulk modulus; aggregated
diamond nanorods have a modulus of 491 gigapascals (GPa), while a
conventional diamond has a modulus of 442 GPa. ADNRs are also 0.3%
denser than regular diamond. The ADNR material is also harder than type
IIa diamond and ultrahard fullerite.

Lonsdaleite is a hexagonal allotrope of the carbon allotrope diamond,

believed to form when meteoric graphite falls to Earth. The great heat and
stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains
graphite's hexagonal crystallattice. Lonsdaleite was first identified from
the Canyon Diablo meteorite at Barringer Crater (also known as Meteor
Crater) in Arizona. It was first discovered in 1967. Lonsdaleite occurs as
microscopic crystals associated with diamond in the Canyon Diablo
meteorite; Kenna meteorite, New Mexico; and Allan Hills (ALH) 77283,
Victoria Land, Antarctica meteorite. It has also been reported from
the Tunguska impact site, Russia.

Carbon nanofoam is the fifth known allotrope of carbon discovered

in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the Australian National
University in Canberra. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of
carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web. Each cluster
is about 6 nanometers wide and consists of about 4000 carbon atoms linked
in graphite-like sheets that are given negative curvature by the inclusion
of heptagons among the regular hexagonal pattern. This is the opposite of
what happens in the case of buckminsterfullerenes, in which carbon sheets
are given positive curvature by the inclusion of pentagons.
2. How are coal formed?
Step 1: plants decay

Step 2: peat is formed

Step 3: peat changes to lignite (soft brown coal made from peat)

Step 4: bituminous coal is formed (black and brittle and very polluting)

Step 5: anthracite coal is formed (highest amount of carbon and clean

burning)

3. How are petroleum fuel form?

Step 1: Diagenesis forms Kerogen

Diagenesis is a process of compaction under mild conditions of temperature and pressure. When organic
aquatic sediments (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) are deposited, they are very saturated with water and
rich in minerals. Through chemical reaction, compaction, and microbial action during burial, water is
forced out and proteins and carbohydrates break down to form new structures that comprise a waxy
material known as “kerogen” and a black tar like substance called “bitumen”. All of this occurs within the
first several hundred meters of burial.

Step 2: Catagenesis (or “cracking”) turns kerogen into petroleum and natural gas

As temperatures and pressures increase (deeper burial) the process of catagenesis begins, which is the
thermal degradation of kerogen to form hydrocarbon chains. Importantly, the process of catagenesis is
catalyzed by the minerals that are deposited and persist through marine diagenesis. The conditions of
catagenesis determine the product, such that higher temperature and pressure lead to more complete
“cracking” of the kerogen and progressively lighter and smaller hydrocarbons. Petroleum formation, then,
requires a specific window of conditions; too hot and the product will favor natural gas (small
hydrocarbons), but too cold and the plankton will remain trapped as kerogen.
VALERIA MONGHIT CE-1R

Allotropic forms of carbon

Amorphous carbon is the name used for carbon that does not have
any crystalline structure. As with all glassy materials, some short-range
order can be observed, but there is no long-range pattern of atomic
positions.While entirely amorphous carbon can be made, natural amorphous
carbon (such as soot) actually contains microscopic crystals
of graphite, [1] sometimes diamond [2]. On the macroscopic scale,
amorphous carbon has no definite structure as it conisists of small irregular
cystals, but on the nanomicroscopic scale,

Carbon nanofoam is the fifth known allotrope of carbon discovered

in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the Australian National
University in Canberra. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of
carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web. Each cluster
is about 6 nanometers wide and consists of about 4000 carbon atoms linked
in graphite-like sheets that are given negative curvature by the inclusion
of heptagons among the regular hexagonal pattern. This is the opposite of
what happens in the case of buckminsterfullerenes, in which carbon sheets
are given positive curvature by the inclusion of pentagons.

pe of the carbon allotrope diamond, believed to form

when meteoric graphite falls to Earth. The great heat and stress of the
impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's
hexagonal crystallattice. Lonsdaleite was first identified from the Canyon
Diablo meteorite in Arizona. It was first discovered in 1967. Lonsdaleite
occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond in the Canyon
Diablo meteorite;
Lonsdaleite is hexagonal allotro

Glassy carbon is a class of non-graphitizing carbon which is widely used

as an electrode material in electrochemistry, as well as for high temperature
crucibles and as a component of some prosthetic devices. It was first
produced by workers at the laboratories of The General Electric
Company, UK, in the early 1960s, using cellulose as the starting material.
A short time laterThe preparation of glassy carbon involves subjecting the
organic precursors to a series of heat treatments at temperatures up to
3000oC. Unlike many non-graphitizing carbons, they are impermeable to
gases and are chemically extremely inert, especially those which have been
prepared at very high temperatures.
 Aggregated diamond nanorods, or ADNRs, are
an allotrope of carbon believed to be the least compressible material known
to humankind, as measured by its isothermal bulk modulus; aggregated
diamond nanorods have a modulus of 491 gigapascals (GPa), while a
conventional diamond has a modulus of 442 GA. ADNRs are also 0.3%
denser than regular diamond. The ADNR material is also harder than type
IIa diamond and ultrahard fullerite.

. Buckminsterfullerenes, or usually just fullerenes for short, were

discovered in 1985 by a team of scientists from Rice University and
the University of Sussex, three of whom were awarded the 1996 Nobel
Prize in Chemistry. They are named for the resemblance of their alliotropic
structure to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist and
architect Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller. Fullerenes are molecules.

Diamond is one of the best known allotropes of carbon, whose hardness

and high dispersion of light make it useful for industrial applications and
jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral, which makes it an
excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No
known naturally occurring substance can scratch, let alone cut, a diamond.

Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν: "to draw/write", for its
use in pencils) is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike
diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor, and can be used, for instance,
as the material in the electrodes of an electrical arc lamp. Graphite holds
the distinction of being the most stable form of carbon under standard
conditions. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard
state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds.

Graphite (named by Abraham

2. How are coal formed?

Step 1: plants decay

Step 2: peat is formed

Step 3: peat changes to lignite (soft brown coal made from peat)

Step 4: bituminous coal is formed (black and brittle and very polluting)

Step 5: anthracite coal is formed (highest amount of carbon and clean

burning)

3. How are petroleum fuel form?

Step 1: Diagenesis forms Kerogen

Diagenesis is a process of compaction under mild conditions of temperature and pressure. When organic
aquatic sediments (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) are deposited, they are very saturated with water and
rich in minerals. Through chemical reaction, compaction, and microbial action during burial, water is
forced out and proteins and carbohydrates break down to form new structures that comprise a waxy
material known as “kerogen” and a black tar like substance called “bitumen”. All of this occurs within the
first several hundred meters of burial.

Step 2: Catagenesis (or “cracking”) turns kerogen into petroleum and natural gas

As temperatures and pressures increase (deeper burial) the process of catagenesis begins, which is the
thermal degradation of kerogen to form hydrocarbon chains. Importantly, the process of catagenesis is
catalyzed by the minerals that are deposited and persist through marine diagenesis. The conditions of
catagenesis determine the product, such that higher temperature and pressure lead to more complete
“cracking” of the kerogen and progressively lighter and smaller hydrocarbons. Petroleum formation, then,
requires a specific window of conditions; too hot and the product will favor natural gas (small
hydrocarbons), but too cold and the plankton will remain trapped as kerogen.