Student Resource Sheet

Title: Carbon Allotropes

LO: To be able to identify, describe, explain structures, properties and uses of carbon allotropes, including graphene

Introduction
Carbon is a widely distributed element that, in combination with other elements such as
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, forms the organic compounds (proteins, DNA, lipids, sugars,
etc.) that are the basis of life on Earth. Its chemical symbol is C; its atomic number is 6 (meaning
there are 6 protons in an atom’s nucleus and 6 electrons in its electron shells). The atomic
weight is of carbon is 12.011 and it is a non-metal in Group 14 of the periodic table. Naturally
occurring isotopes of carbon are carbon-12 (6 neutrons), carbon-13 (7 neutrons) and carbon-14
(8 neutrons). Carbon-14 can be used for the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard
Libby and colleagues in 1949 to date archaeological, geological and hydrogeological samples.
Carbon forms a very large number of organic compounds because it can form strong bonds
with itself and with other elements. Each carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds.
These bonds also allow carbon to form long, chain-shaped molecules, called polymers, such as
plastics. Carbon allotropes are different forms of carbon that exist in the same physical state,
e.g. as solids. A number of carbon allotropes are nanomaterials, materials made up of particles
smaller than 100 nanometres in at least one dimension.

Amorphous carbon
Amorphous carbon is carbon that does not have any crystalline molecular structure. While
entirely amorphous carbon can be produced in a lab, most amorphous carbon contains
microscopic crystals of diamond-like or graphite-like carbon. As with all glassy materials,
some short-range order of atoms is often present, but there is no long-range pattern. Coal and
soot or carbon black are often regarded as amorphous carbons, though their formation
through pyrolysis (decomposition of a substance through the action of heat) does not produce
pure amorphous carbon under normal conditions. The name “carbon” itself comes from the
Latin word carbo, meaning charcoal – and in many foreign languages the words for carbon,
coal and charcoal are synonymous. Coal is combustible, and therefore a “fossil fuel”. Most coal was formed
approximately 300 million years ago, from the remains of trees and other vegetation. These remains were trapped on
the bottom of swamps, accumulating layer after layer and creating a dense material called “peat”. As this peat was
buried under more and more layers, the high temperatures and pressure transformed it into coal. The highest quality
anthracite coal is about 90% carbon; bituminous coal is about 75-90% carbon and the brownish-coloured lignite is only
about 55% carbon. Although by far the most common use of coal is as a fuel, it has other industrial uses in the
production of the black colour in inks and pigments (paints), rubber tyres, stove polish and phonograph records.

Diamond
Diamond is a “giant covalent molecule” of carbon atoms held together by millions of
covalent bonds, giving it very high melting and boiling points. Each carbon atom forms four
strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms, creating a cubic crystal lattice with no free
(delocalised) electrons. This structure also leads to diamond’s extraordinary hardness,
making it useful for industrial applications in cutting, drilling and grinding. As there are no
free (delocalised) electrons, diamond cannot conduct heat or electricity. Diamond is
transparent and lustrous, making it desirable for jewellery.

Graphite
Graphite is comprised of layers of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms, each forming three
strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. The layers are held together by weaker
Van der Waal bonds involving free or “delocalised” electrons. Because graphite has so
many strong covalent bonds, it has high melting and boiling points. Because the layers
are not bonded as strongly, the layers can slide across each other making graphite
slippery. Although graphite is a carbon allotrope, and therefore a non-metal, its
delocalised electrons can move, enabling it to conduct heat and electricity.
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 Student Resource Sheet

Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are materials that are made up of particles smaller than 100 nanometres in at least one dimension. A
nanometre is one-billionth of a metre, or about 10,000 times smaller than a human hair. The most notable carbon
allotrope nanomaterials are graphene, fullerenes and nanotubes.
 Graphene is one layer of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms, only 1 atom thick. Each carbon atom forms three
covalent bonds, leaving free (delocalised) electrons, so graphene is an excellent conductor of heat and
electricity. The surface area to mass ratio of graphene is much, much greater than that of graphite which gives it
many more applications. The isolation of graphene has been attributed to Andre Geim and Konstantin
Novoselov of the University of Manchester in 2004 and has led to an explosion of
nanotechnologies in the succeeding years. The two-dimensional structure of
graphene makes it an excellent sensor. Combined with its high electrical
conductivity and optical transparency, this property makes it useful for applications
such as touchscreens, solar panels and liquid crystal displays (LCDs). The very
high surface area to mass ratio of graphene makes it suitable for energy storage
devices, such as batteries and supercapacitors. Its strength makes it useful in
reinforcing materials such as concrete. In addition, the ‘nanogaps’ in graphene
sheets make it effective in water remediation, filtering out bacteria and other impurities from water.
 Fullerenes, nanobuds and nanotubes are nanomaterials formed when pentagonal
and heptagonal (seven-sided) rings of atoms create ‘defects’ within a graphene
sheet. If one, isolated, pentagonal ring is present, the graphene sheet warps into a
cone shape; insertion of 12 pentagons creates a spherical fullerene, called a
“Buckminsterfullerene” or “Bucky Ball”. Similarly, insertion of one isolated heptagon
causes the graphene sheet to become saddle-shaped. Controlled addition of
pentagons and heptagons allows a wide variety of complex shapes, such as carbon
nanobuds, to be made. Single-walled carbon nanotubes are cylinders of graphene;
some have a hemispherical graphene cap that includes 6 pentagons at each end.
The hollow centre of fullerenes makes them useful in delivering pharmaceuticals
directly into the body. Fullerenes can also be used as catalysts and lubricants.
The large surface area to mass ratio and cylindrical “stretchy” structure of
nanotubes give them exceptional strength, so they can be used as additives to
various structural materials in the manufacture of tennis racquets, golf clubs and
car parts, amongst other things. They are also excellent conductors of electricity
and heat.

Surface Area : Mass Ratio

The surface area-to-mass ratio gives a comparison of the amount of “accessible” material for equal masses of material.
The more “accessible” material there is, the more easily and rapidly actions and reactions will occur. Because graphene
is only one atom thick, it has an enormous surface area-to-mass ratio.
To find the surface area-to-mass ratio:
1) calculate the surface area by multiplying the length x the width of each plane and adding together the area of all
planes.
2) divide by the mass of your sample.

Practice Exam questions

1) Carbon can exist in the solid forms of diamond, graphite and fullerenes. What are these forms called? (1 mark)
2) Use your knowledge of the structure and bonding of graphite and graphene to:-
a. Explain fully why graphene is strong. (3 marks)
b. Explain fully why graphene conducts electricity. (2 marks)
c. Suggest why graphite would not be suitable for touchscreens. (1 mark)
3) Explain, using ideas of structure and bonding, why graphene is strong and graphite is slippery. (2 marks)

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