CHEMISTRY

BIBLIOPGRAPHY:
https://www.thoughtco.com/allotrope-definition-in-chemistry-606370
https://byjus.com/allotropes-of-carbon/
http://www.28ing.com/index.php/difference-between-polymorphism-and-allotropy-l-
polymorphism-vs-allotropy/2/
https://byjus.com/chemistry/graphite/
PICTURES

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WHAT ARE ALLOTROPES?
The term allotrope refers to one or more forms of a chemical element that occur in the same
physical state. The different forms arise from the different ways atoms may be bonded
together. The concept of allotropes was proposed by Swedish scientist Jons Jakob Berzelius
in 1841. The ability for elements to exist in this way is called allotropism.
Allotropes may display very different chemical and physical properties. For example,
graphite and diamond are both allotropes of carbon that occur in the solid state. Graphite is
soft, while diamond is extremely hard. Allotropes of phosphorus display different colors,
such as red, yellow, and white. Elements may change allotropes in response to changes in
pressure, temperature, and exposure to light.
How many Carbon Allotropes are there?
 Diamond: It is extremely hard, transparent crystal, with the carbon atoms arranged in
a tetrahedral lattice. This allotrope of carbon is a poor electrical conductor and an
excellent thermal conductor[lattice is the pattern formed by the points and used to
represent the positions of these repeating structural elements].
 Lonsdaleite: These are also called hexagonal diamond.
 Graphene: It is the basic structural element of other allotropes, nanotubes, charcoal,
and fullerenes.
 Q-carbon: These carbon allotropes are ferromagnetic, tough, and brilliant crystal
structure that is harder and brighter than diamonds.
 Graphite: It is a soft, black, flaky solid, a moderate electrical conductor. The C atoms
are bonded in flat hexagonal lattices (graphene), which are then layered in sheets.
 Linear acetylenic carbon (Carbyne)
 Amorphous carbon
 Fullerenes, including Buckminsterfullerene, also known as “buckyballs”, such as C60.
 Carbon nanotubes: Allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN POLYMORPHISM AND

ALLOTROPY
GRAPHITE
STRUCTURE
 This crystal carbon has a structure that is planar and layered. Graphene is the term
used to denote each layer of the same.
 Every layer has atoms of carbon arranged in a honeycomb-like network with the
division of 0.142 nm with 0.335 nm distance between planes.
 There is a covalent bonding for atoms in the plane with the criteria being met by only
three out of four probable bonding sites.
 The graphite would be conductive electrically owing to the fourth electron having a
chance to migrate into the plane.
 The layers of the carbon crystal could swiftly move past each other as the layers could
be separated easily as van der Waals bonds[Van der Waals forces, also known as van
der Waals bonds or van der Waals interaction, are weak intermolecular
interactions observed in condensed phases like solid and liquid. They are responsible
for the bulk properties of substances, like the boiling and melting points] that are
weak-hold them together.

PROPERTIES OF GRAPHITE

 Graphite occurs in the free state but can also be prepared artificially.
 It is a greyish black, opaque substance.

 Lighter than diamond, smooth and slippery to touch.

 It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
 Carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized.
 It is a crystalline solid
 It melts about 1800K.
 Non-inflammable.
 Soft due to weak Vander wall forces

USES

The word graphite is from the Greek language which translates as ‘to write’. So the
most common use of graphite is in making the lead in pencils. This lead is a mixture
of clay and graphite which is in an amorphous form.

Lubricants / Repellents
Graphite is one of the main ingredients in lubricants like grease, etc. This mineral
reacts with atmospheric water vapour and creates a thin film or layer over the surface
applied and thus reduces friction. Graphite is also used in car brakes and clutches.

The powdered form of lump graphite is also used in paints. Why? Well, graphite by
nature is water-repellent. So it offers a protective coating on wood and other surfaces.

Refractories

Due to its high tolerance to heat and unchangeability, Graphite is a widely used
refractory material. It finds its use in the manufacturing industry and it helps in the
production of glass and steel as well as processing of iron.

Nuclear Reactors

Graphite can absorb fast-moving neutrons. As a result, it is used in reactors to

stabilize nuclear reactions.

Electrical Industry

Crystalline flake graphite is used in the manufacturing of carbon electrodes, brushes,

and plates needed in dry cell batteries and the electrical industry. Interestingly, natural
graphite is also processed into synthetic graphite. This type of graphite is useful in
lithium-ion batteries.

Graphene Sheets

Graphite can be used to make graphene sheets. These sheets are said to be 100 times
stronger and 10 times lighter than steel. This derivative of graphite is further used in
making lightweight and strong sports equipment. Many are considering future
applications in the field of medical and aerospace industry.
DIAMOND
the atomic arrangement of a diamond is called a crystal structure this
means that its atoms are arranged in a repetitive pattern and are
closely packed the high density of this arrangement makes diamond a
super hard material

PROPERTIES
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2r8DewNu6Ic
www.youtube.com/watch?v=L95h4dvTTuE

FULLERENE
Fullerenes in their natural form tend to be highly symmetrical. Their
structure is quite similar to that of graphite and is made up of a sheet
of connected hexagonal rings (cage structure). However, they have
pentagonal and sometimes heptagonal rings which do not allow the
sheet to become planar. They are often referred to as buckyballs and
buckytubes depending on their shape. Cylindrical fullerenes are
referred to as nanotubes. 

PROPERTIES
 Its behaviour and structure depend on the temperature. As the
temperature is increased fullerene gets converted into the C70. 
 Fullerene structure can change under different pressures.
 Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive.
 Fullerene is ferromagnetic.

Some fullerenes are inherently chiral. [asymmetric in such a way that the structure and its
mirror image are not superimposable
 Fullerenes are used in the medical field as light-activated antimicrobial agents.
 It is also used in several biomedical applications including the design of high-
performance MRI contrast agents, X-ray imaging contrast agents, photodynamic therapy
and drug and gene delivery.
 Buckminsterfullerene is used in drug delivery systems, in lubricants and as a catalyst.
 It is also used as a conductor.
 Some types of fullerene can be used as an absorbent for gases.
 It is used in making cosmetic products.
 C60  based films are used for photovoltaic applications.
 Fullerenes are used in making carbon nanotubes based fabrics and fibres.