Allotropes

Complete the following questions by using the molecular model kits and conducting online
research. Include a formatted bibliography of sources used.
1. Define an allotrope.

An allotrope can be defined as different forms of the same kind of element. It is a state
whereby identical atoms have the same chemical properties but different physical
properties.

2. Identify four allotropes of carbon.

diamond , graphite, buckminsterfullerene, nanotubes, amorphous carbon

3. Use the model kits to make a model of each allotrope.

4. Outline the properties of each allotrope of carbon.

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON PROPERTIES

DIAMOND ● Crystalline allotrope of carbon

● It arranged in a shape of
tetrahedron -a 3D solid with four
triangular shaped faces
● Extremely hard but brittle
● Very high melting point of 4000k or
more
● Poor conductors of electric current
and heat
● Eah carbon undergoes
sp3(hybridisation)
● Bond length is 154pm
● Density is 3.5g/cc
● It is transparent

GRAPHITE ● Crystalline allotrope of carbon

● A single layer of graphite is called
graphene
● It is hexagonal in shape

● It is very soft
● It conducts electricity
● It has high melting point 1800k
(similar to that of diamond)
 ● Each carbon undergoes sp3
hybridisation
● Bond length is 142 pm
● Distance between the layers is 335
pm
● It is opaque with metallic lustre
● Density varies from 2.0 to 2.25g/cc

BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE (buckyball) ● Crystalline allotrope of carbon

● Nanostructures made from carbon
atoms
● Consist of about 60 or more carbon
atoms arranged like a hollow sphere
and held together by strong
covalent bond
● Because of their structure they can
be used as lubricants and coatings
and also to isolate chemicals from
each other)
● They can act as molecular
containers.
● Stable to heat but will sublime. A
bucky ball containing 60 carbon
atoms will sublime at over 2800
● They are made by heating graphite
in an electric arc in the presence of
inert gas Helium or Argon
● All the carbon atoms are sp2
hybridised.
● It has both single and double bonds
● Bond length of single bond is 145.3
pm while double bond is 138.3 pm
● It has 6 membered as well as 5
membered rings.

AMORPHOUS CARBON ● They consist of carbon black, coke

and charcoal
Carbon black- obtained by burning
hydrocarbons in a limited supply of air
Charcoal and coke- obtained by heating
wood or coal at high temperatures in the
absence of air
● It is without shape i.e no consistent
order of arrangement
 5. Relate the properties of each allotrope to its structure.

ALLOTROPES OF CARBON PROPERTIES

DIAMOND ● Crystalline allotrope of carbon

● It arranged in a shape of
tetrahedron -a 3D solid with four
triangular shaped faces(each carbon
is linked to four other carbon atoms
through a sigma bond)
● Extremely hard but brittle(the
strong covalent bond hold the
structure firmly together. Can be
split along crystal faces)
● Very high melting point of 4000k or
more (the structure is made by very
strong covalent bonds to break this
takes a lot of energy.
● Poor conductors of electric current
and heat ( all the valence electrons
are used in the bonding. None are
free to move)
● Eah carbon undergoes
sp3(hybridisation)
● Bond length is 154pm
● Density is 3.5g/cc
● It is transparent

GRAPHITE ● Crystalline allotrope of carbon

● A single layer of graphite is called
graphene
● It is hexagonal in shape (layers of
hexagonal shaped rings form and
these can slide over each other,
making graphite soft and slippery)
● It is very soft( van der waal forces
attract the layers of ring together
and this allows graphite to be used
as a lubricant and to write on paper,
lead pencils consist of graphite in a
clay base)
● It conducts electricity ( each carbon
atom only forms covalent bonds
with three other carbon atoms
through a sigma bond, leaving one
free valence electron in each carbon
atom. These becomes delocalised.
 The fourth electron forms a πbond)
● It has high melting point 1800k
(similar to that of diamond)
● Each carbon undergoes sp3
hybridisation
● Bond length is 142 pm
● Distance between the layers is 335
pm
● It is opaque with metallic lustre
● Density varies from 2.0 to 2.25g/cc

BUCKMINSTERFULLERENE (buckyball) ● Crystalline allotrope of carbon

● Nanostructures made from carbon
atoms (they take on several shapes,
hollow spheres, ellipsoid or tubes)
● Consist of about 60 or more carbon
atoms arranged like a hollow sphere
and held together by strong
covalent bond)
● Because of their structure they can
be used as lubricants and coatings
and also to isolate chemicals from
each other)
● They can act as molecular
containers.
● Stable to heat but will sublime. A
bucky ball containing 60 carbon
atoms will sublime at over 2800
● They are made by heating graphite
in an electric arc in the presence of
inert gas Helium or Argon
● All the carbon atoms are sp2
hybridised.
● It has both single and double bonds
● Bond length of single bond is 145.3
pm while double bond is 138.3 pm
● It has 6 membered as well as 5
membered rings.

AMORPHOUS CARBON ● They consist of carbon black, coke

and charcoal
Carbon black- obtained by burning
hydrocarbons in a limited supply of air
Charcoal and coke- obtained by heating
wood or coal at high temperatures in the
absence of air
 ● It is without shape i.e no consistent
order of arrangement

6. Briefly outline the structure and properties of each allotrope of phosphorus.

Phosphorus has at least 12 allotropes

Most common are white and red phosphorous. Black phosphorus is most stable.
● White phosphorus (P4) ignites spontaneously in air. Used in military weapons and
smoke devices. Highly toxic, reactive with halogens and metals.
Translucent white waxy
Solid
Poisonous
Water insoluble
It glows in the dark
It dissolves in boiling NaOH solution
It is less stable and more reactive because of the angular strain
That it catches fire in the air and gives a dense white fume
It has a garlic like odour
Density is high (18)
Melting point of 440C
Boiling point 2800c
Held together by a weak order
To prepare you get phosphate rock ca3( po4)2 you heat it with SAND SiO2 and coke in an
electric furnace

● Red phosphorus structure consists of chains, perpendicularly cross-linked at the P’

-P’’ junction (the P’’ is in a different chain). Not toxic, less reactive than white
form towards halogens and metals and also less flammable
Odourless
Not poisonous
Insoluble in water
Insoluble in co2
Less reactive
Does not glow in the dark
Prepared by heating white phosphorus in a closed vessel in the absence of air for days and
almost a temperature of almost 542k or 570k for few days
The density is 2.2 g/cm3 the white phosphorous has a density of 80 g/cm3
It sublimes at 3000c
It does not easily catch fire
 ● Black phosphorus is similar to graphite in structure and physical properties (black,
smooth and electrically conductive). Not toxic, non flammable, chemically inert up
to high temperatures.
It prepared by heating white or red phosphorous and you against heat this at a higher
temperature of 470 k
It has two forms- alpha black (formed by heating red phosphorus in a sealed tube at
almost 800 together and it does not oxidizes in the air) and beta black( take white
phosphorous as input then heat it as 473k under high pressures in this case you need high
pressure)

Phosphorous are used to make rat poisons , medicines, bombs, alloys and fertilizers.

7. List some other elements that display allotropy.

Oxygen, sulphur, boron, silicon, tin, bromine, fluorine, iodine, nitrogen etc

Bibliography
http://afrodita.rcub.bg.ac.rs/~rzoran/Allotropes%20of%20carbon.htm
https://youtu.be/w_3fvq4EYpE

https://youtu.be/j0suPpZAjwM
http://agapie.caltech.edu/Ch102_2017/SamplePresentation.pdf

https://youtu.be/o5XOsG0CizE