2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

Week 6: Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

Lesson summary
● Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element in the same state.
They exhibit different physical properties.
● Three allotropes of carbon are diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene.
● Diamond has a covalent network structure, and is very hard.
○ Each carbon is bonded to four other carbons by covalent bonds.
○ It does not conduct electricity as there are no free ions or electrons.
○ It has a very high BP since strong covalent bonds need to be broken.
● Graphite is composed of layers of covalent networks, and is soft and slippery.
○ Each carbon is bonded to three other carbons by covalent bonds.
○ One valence electron per carbon atom is delocalised between layers,
creating weak interactions that hold the layers together.
○ These layers can slide over one another, so graphite is used in pencils.
○ Graphite can conduct electricity due to these delocalised electrons.
○ It has a very high BP since strong covalent bonds need to be broken.
● Buckminsterfullerene is a covalent molecule, and is soft and slippery.
○ It has the formula C​60​ and is a cage-like structure.
○ It does not conduct electricity as there are no free ions or electrons.
○ It has a low BP since weak intermolecular forces need to be broken.
● A bond between two non-metal elements of differing electronegativity is polar.
● A covalent molecule is polar if it possesses a net dipole moment:
○ The bonds must be polar
○ The molecular geometry must not cancel out the bond dipoles
● There are three types of intermolecular forces:
○ Dipole-dipole interactions: Polar molecules will arrange themselves such
that the opposite charges on their dipoles will attract each other.
○ Hydrogen-bonding: A particularly strong dipole is formed when H is
bonded to F, O or N. These dipole-dipole interactions are called H-bonds.
○ Dispersion forces: The random motion of electrons create temporary
dipoles in all molecules (polar or non-polar). They are the weakest IMF.
● Intermolecular forces are between covalent molecules. They are weaker than
covalent bonds.
○ Intermolecular forces are broken when boiling covalent molecules.
● Intramolecular forces are between atoms within a molecule or compound. These
include covalent, ionic and metallic bonds.
○ Intramolecular bonds are broken when boiling covalent networks, ionic
networks and metals.

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

1.4.3 investigate elements that possess the physical property of allotropy

Allotropes ​are different structural forms of the same element in the same state. They
exhibit different physical properties.

Examples include:
Non-metals Semi-metals Metals

Carbon Boron Tin

Phosphorus Silicon Iron
Oxygen Antimony Cobalt
Sulfur Arsenic Polonium
Selenium Germanium
Tellurium

Allotropes of Carbon
● Carbon is a common element with at least 10 allotropic forms.
● Three of its allotropes are ​diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene.
● A fourth allotrope is ​amorphous carbon ​which is present in soot formed as a product
of incomplete combustion.

Diamond

To be printed

● Diamond has a ​covalent network structure.

● Diamond is very ​hard.
○ Every carbon atom in diamond is bonded to its neighbours by​ four strong
covalent bonds​ arranged in a​ tetrahedral geometry.
○ Due to its hardness, diamond is used in dentist's drill tips and cutting tools.
● Diamond ​does not conduct electricity.

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

○ There are no free electrons or ions.

● Diamond has a ​very high melting point and boiling point.
○ In order to melt or boil diamond, strong covalent bonds need to be broken,
which requires immense energy.
● Diamond is also ​colourless​,​ transparent​ and​ lustrous​ which makes it appealing for
use in jewellery.

Graphite

To be printed

● Graphite is composed of ​layers ​of ​covalent networks.

● Within each layer, each carbon atom is bonded to only ​three ​other carbons, forming
a trigonal planar geometry.
○ When viewed at a larger scale, graphite looks like hexagons of carbon in a
honeycomb structure.
● This allows for one valence electron per carbon atom to be ​delocalised ​between the
layers, creating weak interactions that hold the layers together.
● Graphite is ​soft ​and ​slippery.
○ Because the layers are only weakly held together, they can easily slip over
one another.
○ These layers are shed onto paper when you use a graphite pencil.
○ Graphite is also used in ​lubricants.
● Graphite is a ​reasonable electrical conductor.
○ One valence electron per carbon atom can be delocalised between the layers,
and carry electrical current.
○ Graphite can be used as ​electrodes ​and in some ​batteries.
● Graphite has a ​very high melting point and boiling point.
○ In order to completely melt or boil graphite, strong covalent bonds still need
to be broken, which requires immense energy.

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

Buckminsterfullerene

To be printed

● Fullerenes ​are a class of carbon allotropes where the carbons are joined together to
make ​cages​ or ​tubes.
● Buckminsterfullerene ​(or buckyball) is a spherical cage-like structure of carbon
atoms which has the chemical formula ​C60​​ .
○ It is a black solid, but turns deep red when dissolved in octane (petrol).
○ It has a ​covalent molecular ​structure.
● Pure buckminsterfullerene is ​a poor electrical conductor​, but can be converted to a
semiconductor under suitable conditions.
● Buckminsterfullerene has a relatively ​low melting point and boiling point.
○ In order to melt or boil buckminsterfullerene, weaker intermolecular forces
need to be broken, which do not require as much energy to break as C-C
covalent bonds.

Extension: Nanotubes
● Another allotrope of carbon is the nanotube, which is also a type of fullerene.
● Nanotubes are strong and able to conduct electricity well.
● They are used in electronic circuits and in circumstances where exceptional
strength and lightness are required, like in tennis racket frames.

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

Key Points:

Carbon Structure Electrical Hardness Melting point

allotrope conductivity

Diamond Covalent network None Very hard Very high

Graphite Layers of Moderate Soft, slippery High

covalent
networks

Buckyball Covalent Low Soft, slippery Low

molecular

1.4.5 explore the similarities and differences between the nature of intermolecular and
intramolecular bonds and the strength of the forces associated with each, in order to
explain the:
– physical properties of elements
– physical properties of compounds (ACSCH020, ACSCH055, ACSCH058)

Note to tutors: ​Please spend time on this section and actively dispel common
misconceptions related to intermolecular forces/intramolecular forces. The new syllabus
places a lesser focus on intermolecular forces, and this leaves some students entering
Year 12 with a poor understanding of intermolecular forces. Feel free to bring these
concepts up again next week (Week 7) and teach them again. By the end of the course, I
hope every student can tell you what is wrong with this sentence, and what it ​should b​ e:
“CO​2​ has a higher boiling point than H​2​O since two C=O bonds are much harder to break
than two O-H single bonds.”

Revision: Polarity of Bonds

Atom 1 Atom 2 Type of bond Polar?

Non-metal element Same non-metal element Non-polar covalent No

Non-metal element Different non-metal Polar covalent Yes

element

Non-metal element Metal element Ionic Yes

Metal element Metal element Metallic No

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

● An important exception to this table is that we consider​ C-H bonds to be non-polar,

since C and H have very similar electronegativities.
● A ​polar bond ​has a ​dipole moment/dipole, ​i.e. one atom is slightly negatively
charged, and the other is slightly positively charged.

Note to tutor: ​The word ‘dipole’ and the phrase ‘dipole moment’ are interchangeable.

● We can represent the ​dipole ​of a polar bond with a special tagged arrow which
points towards the more electronegative element. For example, in HCl:

For students to draw

Polarity of covalent molecules

A covalent molecule is ​polar ​if it possesses a ​net dipole moment, ​i.e. one side of the
molecule is slightly negatively charged, and the other side is slightly positively charged.

● The polarity of covalent molecules depends on ​two important factors:

○ The polarity of the bonds
○ The molecular geometry
● To work out if a molecule is ​polar ​or ​non-polar, ​draw the molecule with its correct
geometry, and then draw all the ​dipoles ​of each bond (if any) using arrows.
● Deduce the overall ​dipole moment ​of the molecule by summing up all the bond
dipoles.
● If there exists a ​non-zero overall dipole, ​then the molecular is ​polar.
● If none of the bonds are polar, or all the bond dipoles cancel out, then the molecule
is ​non-polar.

Worked Example
Determine whether H​2​O is polar.

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

For students and tutors to draw (does not have to be exactly the same as above)

Note to formatters: ​Leave sufficient space for the following questions so that students can
draw diagrams of the molecules.

Examples
Determine whether the following molecules are polar:
1. CH​4
No. None of the bonds are polar.
2. CO​2
No. Even though C=O bonds are polar, the bond dipoles cancel each other out.
3. NH​3
Yes. The net dipole moment points towards the nitrogen atom from the base of the trigonal
pyramid of hydrogen atoms.

Intermolecular bonds/forces

Dipole-Dipole Interactions
● Dipole-dipole interactions​ occur between two​ polar ​molecules.
● As above, polar molecules have a ​net dipole​, i.e. a slightly positively charged side
and a slightly negatively charged side.
● These molecules can arrange themselves such that the opposite charges attract each
other.

For students to draw

● These electrostatic interactions are named ​dipole-dipole interactions

● Dipole-dipole forces are considerably ​weaker than ionic or covalent bonds​.
● The ​strength​ of these dipole-dipole interactions depends on the size of the overall
dipole moment.
○ Molecules containing elements with large differences in electronegativity
tend to have larger dipole moments.
○ The ​greater the dipole moment,​ the ​stronger the dipole-dipole interactions.

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

Hydrogen bonding
● Hydrogen bonding​ (or H-bonding) is a special type of particularly ​strong
dipole-dipole interactions.
● This only occurs between dipoles formed by ​hydrogen directly bonded to the highly
electronegative atoms: F, O or N.
● The reason for this is twofold:
○ The larger difference in electronegativity results in a greater bond polarity
○ The very small size of the H atom allows the close approach of these dipoles
● H-bonding is much stronger than dipole-dipole interactions ​but are considerably
weaker than ionic or covalent bonds.

For students to draw

Dispersion Forces
● Dispersion forces​ exist between​ any two molecules regardless of polarity.
● As electrons move around within molecules randomly, a momentary non-uniform
distribution of charge causes the formation of a ​temporary dipole.
○ This​ instantaneous dipole ​that forms in one atom/molecule can then affect
the electron distribution in a neighbouring atom/molecule and ​induce a
similar dipole.
○ This leads to an​ intermolecular attraction​ that is relatively weak and short
lived, called a ​dispersion force.
● This is the primary intermolecular force that exists between ​non-polar molecules
such as CH​4​.
● The ​strength of dispersion forces increases ​with ​molecular mass, ​i.e. ​larger
molecules ​have ​larger dispersion forces ​than smaller molecules.
○ Larger molecules have a greater number of electrons and have an increased
chance of forming these momentary dipoles.
● Dispersion forces are​ generally weaker than dipole-dipole interactions or
H-bonding.
○ However, they can become quite significant if the molecule is very large, for
example between long-chain polymers.

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2020 M1W6 Teacher’s Notes - Allotropy and Intermolecular Forces

Melting and boiling covalent molecules

● When melting or boiling covalent molecules, ​intermolecular forces ​and not
intramolecular forces are broken.
● The stronger the intermolecular forces between covalent bonds, the more energy
required to break them, and the ​higher the melting/boiling point.

Key Points:

Intramolecular bonds Intermolecular bonds

Definition Bonds between atoms within a Bonds/forces between molecules

molecule or compound.

Examples Covalent, ionic, metallic H-bonding > dipole-dipole

interactions > dispersion forces

Strength Strong Weak

Break when Covalent networks, ionic Covalent molecules

boiling… networks, metals